CAREERS .

ROLCAM · Posted: Thu May 31, 2007 1:09 pm Post subject: CAREERS .

Careers. Many people use the term career to mean the job, occupation, or vocation a person has. However, a career involves much more than does a job, an occupation, or a vocation. A career is the pattern of work and work-related activities that develops throughout a lifetime. It includes the job or series of jobs a person has until retirement. There are as many kinds of careers as there are people. They vary greatly in the type of work involved and in the ways they influence a person's life.

Almost every adult has a career of some kind. Most people build a career to help them satisfy certain goals. Such goals might include earning a living or helping others. The best-known career pattern develops around work for pay. Most workers in such a career hold a job to support themselves and their family. However, some people build a career around activities for which they receive no money. For example, many Careers. Many people use the term career to mean the job, occupation, or vocation a person has. However, a career involves much more than does a job, an occupation, or a vocation. A career is the pattern of work and work-related activities that develops throughout a lifetime. It includes the job or series of jobs a person has until retirement. There are as many kinds of careers as there are people. They vary greatly in the type of work involved and in the ways they influence a person's life.

Almost every adult has a career of some kind. Most people build a career to help them satisfy certain goals. Such goals might include earning a living or helping others. The best-known career pattern develops around work for pay. Most workers in such a career hold a job to support themselves and their family. However, some people build a career around activities for which they receive no money. For example, many people work to create a comfortable home life for their family. Others spend much of their time on charitable projects.

The kind of career you have can affect your life in many ways. For example, it can determine where you live and the friends you make. It can reflect how much education you have and can determine the amount of money you earn. Your career can also affect the way you feel about yourself and the way other people act toward you. By making wise decisions concerning your career, you can help yourself build the life you want.

Important career decisions include choosing a career field and deciding how you want your career to develop. Other decisions involve selecting the educational and job opportunities that will advance your career. Knowing your abilities, interests, and goals gives you a foundation on which to base your career decisions. In addition, a broad knowledge of the world of work can help you find career possibilities that suit your abilities, interests, and goals.

This article deals mainly with careers based on work for pay. It concentrates on careers in the United States, but much of the material applies also to careers in Canada and other countries. The article provides information that can help you choose and plan a career. It also describes skills that can be useful in getting a job. In addition, the article discusses major career fields and many of the occupations within each field. For more detailed information on an individual career field, see the articles listed in the Related articles at the end of this article.

Choosing and planning a career

To make wise career decisions and plans, you need as much information as possible. The more you know about yourself and career opportunities, the better able you will be to choose a satisfying career.

Learning about oneself. People differ in what they want from a career. Many people desire a high income. Some hope for fame. Others want adventure. Still others want to serve people and make the world a better place.

Before you begin to explore career fields, you should determine (1) your values; (2) your interests; and (3) your aptitudes. Most people are happiest in jobs that fit their values, interests, and aptitudes.

Values are deeply held beliefs that influence the way people think, act, and feel. They reflect what people consider to be important and greatly affect the goals people set for themselves. Each person has many values, which vary in strength. For example, money is the strongest value for some people--that is, wealth is more important to them than anything else. As a result, they focus their thoughts, behavior, and emotions on the goal of earning a high income. Other values include devotion to religion, taking risks, spending time with family, and helping others. People should understand their values prior to making a career decision.

You can develop an understanding of your values by asking yourself what is most important to you and by examining your beliefs. For example, is it important to you to work as a member of a team? Or would you rather be in charge or work alone? If working alone or being in charge is important to you, independence is probably one of your primary values.

You can also learn about your values with the aid of experts known as career and guidance counselors. Through tests and questions, a counselor can guide you toward developing a detailed list of your beliefs. The counselor can then assist you in determining what careers best match these values.

Interests are related to values and typically are defined as likes or preferences. The subjects that you like in school and the leisure activities you prefer are indications of your interests. For example, someone who prefers working with others rather than alone would probably be interested in team sports or various other group activities. Many people have interests in artistic, mechanical, outdoor, or scientific activities. Other interests include helping people and solving problems.

Many people base their career choices on their interests. For numerous workers, job performance and job satisfaction depend on how much their work relates to their interests. It is therefore helpful to identify your strongest and most lasting interests before you select a career field. To find out what your interests are, examine the kinds of activities you have enjoyed. Such activities might include club work, hobbies, and sports. The activities you enjoy most may represent your strongest interests. Counselors can also help you identify your interests.

Aptitudes are a person's natural talents. Aptitudes indicate how easily a person can acquire certain skills or be trained for a specific career. An aptitude is sometimes known as an ability. However, the term ability can also refer to a skill--such as reading or speaking a foreign language--that a person has learned.

One of the most important aptitudes is scholastic aptitude. People who have high scholastic aptitude tend to succeed more easily in school than those who do not. Scholastic aptitude plays a major role in determining a person's career choice.

Many special aptitudes besides scholastic aptitude are related to success in various jobs. For example, people with clerical speed and accuracy aptitude can develop skill in recording and organizing information. Mechanical reasoning aptitude can help you acquire mechanical concepts that relate to repairing and assembling machines. People with manual dexterity aptitude can learn to use their hands skillfully and quickly in manual tasks. Spatial relations aptitude can help you imagine objects in two and three dimensions. People with numerical reasoning aptitude can easily become skilled in using numbers in problem solving. Thinking and reasoning with words involves verbal reasoning aptitude. Abstract reasoning aptitude can help you reason with symbols other than words and numbers.

Before you make a career choice, you should determine if performing that job requires any special aptitudes. To succeed in engineering, for example, you should have aptitudes for verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, and spatial relations.

Performance on aptitude tests and in various school subjects are good indicators of aptitude. How well you do in recreational activities, such as playing computer games or building model airplanes, may also indicate aptitude.

However, you should remember two important factors about aptitudes. First, people may not realize they have certain aptitudes unless they are given the opportunity to develop them. For example, people once believed that women had less aptitude to learn mathematics than men did. As a result, women were discouraged from taking mathematics courses. However, it is now known that women can learn mathematics as effectively as men. Second, if you have relatively low aptitude in a given area, you can still develop the skills and abilities needed to perform successfully in that area. For example, people with low mechanical aptitude can learn to skillfully perform mechanical tasks. However, they may have more difficulty in learning mechanical skills and concepts than they would if they had mechanical aptitude.

Other personal characteristics, such as friendliness, dependability, and honesty, contribute to success in a career. They may even be essential elements of a career in sales, banking, management, or other fields. These kinds of characteristics are difficult to measure. However, a serious look at your past behavior can help you find out if you have such qualities.

Discovering the world of work. The world of work is vast and constantly changing. There are about 12,000 kinds of occupations in the United States. Scientific advances and other developments constantly eliminate some jobs and create new ones. For a survey of many of the most common occupations and the training they require, see the section The world of work later in this article.

Most people begin to discover the world of work in early childhood. The following discussion deals with how children learn and can be helped to learn about the wide range of career possibilities.

Children start to discover the world of work before they enter elementary school. At home and in the community, they become aware that people work in various occupations. During these years, most children also start to form ideas about life and about themselves as individuals. These ideas can influence their later school success and occupational choices. A realistic view of themselves and the world of work can help prepare children to make successful career choices.

Adults can help children discover the world of work in many ways. For example, parents and teachers can encourage children to notice and talk about different jobs in the community. Children might play games, such as "what's my line?" or "let's pretend," using occupations they have seen. They might also read and discuss stories that deal with different kinds of workers.

Teachers can ask students to select an occupation and give a report on it. Teachers can also assign other projects. For example, students might produce a skit about various kinds of work. They also might interview workers and later discuss these interviews in class. Older students might make a film for which they serve as writers, directors, and other motion-picture workers. This kind of activity can help the students see how various occupations depend on one another.

Children can learn about their own characteristics by listing their abilities and interests. These lists can then be compared with characteristics that are important in certain occupations. In this way, children can begin to discover occupations that might suit them.

What to look for in career fields. By carefully examining various occupations, you should find the elements of a career that best suits your values and interests. But it would be hard to study every kind of career opportunity. You can limit the number of occupations you consider by identifying and exploring only those that most interest you. Many students begin to explore career fields when they are in junior high school. This exploration helps them select high school courses that relate to their career interests.

For most workers, job satisfaction depends on how well the various characteristics of a job meet their own personal characteristics. In exploring an occupation, you should therefore consider the following job characteristics:

The nature of the work. Some jobs chiefly involve working with things, and others mainly require dealing with data, people, or ideas. Most jobs combine a variety of work activities. You should look for an occupation that involves activities you enjoy and can do well.

Working conditions mean the environment in which a particular job is performed. A work environment might be indoors or outdoors, or involve extreme heat or cold. Some jobs involve high levels of dust or noise, physical hazards, or mental stress. Other conditions to consider include the hours involved and whether employees work alone or in groups.

Special abilities required. Some occupations call for more intelligence, mechanical aptitude, artistic talent, or other abilities than most people possess. You should therefore be aware of any special requirements in the jobs you consider.

Physical demands. Some occupations make special physical demands on workers. For example, jobs that involve carrying, lifting, pulling, or pushing objects require strength. Other occupations might require workers who have keen vision or who can stand for long periods. When you consider a job, be sure that you can meet any physical demands the work might make on you.

Preparation needed. The amount of preparation required to enter an occupation varies from job to job. It can range from a few hours of on-the-job training to more than 10 years of education beyond high school. In addition, workers in some occupations must continue their education to keep their jobs or to advance in them. Some occupations require several years of experience and preparation at lower-level jobs. You should thus consider how much time and money you might have to invest in the careers that interest you.

Chances for employment. Before you choose a career field, you should consider your chances for getting a job in that field. Most workers are hired to replace employees who have left their jobs. This situation is especially true in occupations and industries with steady or decreasing employment. In growing occupations and industries, however, additional workers are needed. In addition, employment in various occupations is affected by the introduction of new products and advanced technologies. Government spending and economic conditions also affect job opportunities.

Probable earnings. In exploring an occupation, you will want to know how much money you can expect to earn. Government, professional, and trade publications supply information on probable earnings for various occupations. However, pay scales vary with location and employers. Union agreements and the amount of experience and education required also affect salaries and wages. Many employers provide insurance coverage, paid vacations, and a number of other such fringe benefits, which you should consider in addition to the probable earnings.

Job security. For many people, job security is an important consideration in selecting an occupation. You may therefore want to examine whether the occupations you are interested in offer relative security. In some industries, production or spending cuts and various other circumstances can cause employers to lay off or fire workers. In many occupations, workers are protected from losing their jobs by a union contract or other written agreement between workers and employers. Workers under such agreements may not be fired except in certain situations. Many occupations have no written guarantee of job security.

Chances for advancement. In exploring various occupations, you should examine possible patterns of promotion, known as career ladders or career paths. In some occupations, workers are promoted to higher positions based on their ability and experience. However, some employers hire people from outside the organization to fill high-level openings. In such cases, a worker can advance only by changing employers. Some occupations allow only limited advancement. Workers in such fields have to obtain additional education or training or change occupations if they wish to advance their careers.

Social status is a person's position or rank in society. Many people believe that certain jobs have higher social status than do others. Some people who value status seek it through choosing highly regarded occupations. You must decide for yourself how important social status is in making your career choices.

Sources of information. A number of sources supply information that can help you explore a career field. Government agencies, industries, professional organizations, and many employers provide materials that describe various occupations. For example, the U.S. Department of Labor describes about 12,000 jobs in its Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Every two years, the Bureau of Labor Statistics issues the Occupational Outlook Handbook, which discusses job requirements, indicates probable earnings, and predicts employment opportunities for selected occupations. Other helpful publications are listed in the Additional resources section at the end of this article.

Many schools offer career courses, clubs, and field trips to help students learn about job opportunities. Some schools provide computer systems that answer students' questions about careers.

Career information is also available from career and guidance counselors. These experts work in high schools, community agencies, employment offices, and college career development and placement centers. A counselor can help you identify your immediate and future career goals and the qualities you have to offer an employer. A counselor can also advise you on how to prepare for and obtain a job in your chosen field.

You can learn about the characteristics of individual jobs by interviewing workers in those jobs. In addition, you can gain firsthand information about an occupation through part-time jobs and volunteer work. For example, a person considering a career in medicine might volunteer as a hospital aide.

Preparing for a career. Career preparation involves learning a variety of skills. Some skills, such as being able to accept supervision and knowing how to get along with others, are learned through everyday experiences in school and in the community. Others require specialized training.

High school courses and experiences are the most important preparations for many careers. In high school, students develop basic verbal and numerical skills, study habits, and other practical abilities. These skills provide the foundation for future learning.

Most people begin specialized career preparation in high school. Business and vocational courses prepare high school students to enter an occupation immediately after graduation. These courses teach skills used in such fields as business, construction, and manufacturing. Most high schools also offer college preparatory courses for students who plan to go to college. In addition, many high schools offer cooperative education programs. Under these programs, students continue their classroom education while they hold a part-time job or participate in some community activity.

Certain occupations require only a high school education. But most jobs call for additional training. Students who do not finish high school or who do poorly there may find it hard to complete the training and education needed to get such jobs.

This section briefly describes the major kinds of career preparation programs. For more detailed information on particular programs, see the Related articles at the end of this article.

On-the-job training means that a worker is taught jobs skills after being hired. In most cases, an experienced worker trains and supervises the beginner. The training may last a few hours or many months.

Apprenticeships are formally regulated by the U.S. Department of Labor and combine classroom instruction and on-the-job training. They require two or more years of job experience and instruction. Every apprenticeship is based on a written agreement between the employer and the apprentice. Most apprenticeships train workers for skilled occupations in construction, manufacturing, transportation, and service industries.

Vocational schools, also called trade schools, offer courses in bookkeeping, secretarial work, television repair, and many other skills. Some trade schools specialize in training such workers as beauticians, flight engineers, mechanics, and truck drivers. Courses range from several months to two years. Most vocational schools prepare students to meet any licensing requirements needed to enter a trade or profession. Many schools also award certificates to graduates.

There are two main kinds of vocational schools, public and proprietary. Public vocational schools are supported by taxes. Proprietary schools are owned by individuals or businesses and operate to make a profit.

Armed forces schools provide career education opportunities for people in military service. These opportunities range from on-the-job training and short courses to college and graduate school. In most cases, the training is designed for jobs in military career fields. However, many skills used in military occupations can be applied to civilian jobs.

Home study and correspondence schools enable people to learn certain job skills at home. Correspondence schools mail study guides, assignments, and examinations to students. The students send the completed work back to the school for grading. Some schools offer lectures over the radio or on public television. Home study courses can prepare students for careers in business, skilled trades, and many other areas.

Technical institutes provide advanced, specialized training in such fields as agriculture, data processing, engineering, and laboratory work. Many graduates of these schools become technicians--that is, workers who assist engineers, scientists, and other highly trained specialists. Most technical institutes have two- or three-year programs, and many are associated with a hospital, university, or other institution. Some technical schools offer short courses similar to those in vocational schools.

Community and junior colleges provide two years of college-level education. They prepare some students to transfer to a four-year college. They train other students for jobs as technicians and for such specialized occupations as nursing, office management, and police work. Most community colleges are financed by taxes. Most junior colleges are privately owned.

Colleges and universities offer four-year programs that lead to a bachelor's degree. For the first two years, students study a wide variety of subjects. For the last two, most students take courses in their chosen career fields. College students learn skills for a wide range of professions, including architecture, journalism, science, and teaching.

Professional and graduate schools. Such professions as dentistry, law, and medicine require education beyond college at a professional school. In addition, many students in business, education, science, and other fields attend graduate school for advanced study in their subject areas. Most professional and graduate schools are part of large universities.

Getting a job

Getting a job begins with locating and applying for jobs that will advance your career plans. It also involves convincing employers that you are the best applicant for their job openings. The way you apply for a job and present your qualifications can greatly influence an employer's impression of you. Therefore, you should know how to contact employers, how to complete application forms, and how to make a good impression in job interviews. It is also important to know how to write a good resume, or summary of your background and qualifications. All these skills can improve your chances for employment. However, do not be discouraged if you are not offered the first job you apply for. Most employers consider several applicants for each job opening, and many people make a number of applications before being hired.

Finding job opportunities. One of the most common ways to learn about job opportunities is by word-of-mouth. Many jobs are filled by people who have heard of the job openings from friends, relatives, teachers, and acquaintances. You should therefore tell the people you know and meet that you are looking for certain kinds of job opportunities. This process is known as networking.

Another common way to locate job opportunities is through the help-wanted section of newspapers. Many professional and union newsletters, journals, and other trade publications also carry advertisements for job openings. In numerous cases, the information given in help-wanted ads can help you decide whether to contact the employer.

Information about job openings is also available from employment agencies. Public employment agencies are run by the government and do not charge for their services. Private agencies charge the jobseeker or the employer a fee if a person is hired as a result of their efforts. Many high schools, colleges, and other schools have placement offices, which are set up to help students and graduates find jobs.

Telephone directories, the College Placement Annual, and other directories list the names and addresses of employers in various fields. Jobseekers must contact the employers to learn about possible job openings.

Contacting employers. Your first contact with an employer will be either to apply for a known job opening or to find out if any jobs are available. Your contacts with employers should be effective and orderly. The most common ways of contacting employers are by mail, by telephone, and by personal visit to an employer's office.

Many applicants for jobs get in touch with employers by mail. A letter to an employer should be typewritten. In the letter, introduce yourself and explain why you are writing. Briefly indicate any experience and skills you have that relate to the kind of job you are seeking. Finally, ask for an interview. Be sure to include your address and telephone number so that the employer can reach you. If you contact an employer by telephone, try to provide the same information that you would cover in a letter.

For some positions, job seekers make direct contact with employers by filling out job applications in person. Some businesses require that applications be on file before considering an applicant for employment. These employers include department stores, fast-food restaurants, supermarkets, retail sales outlets, automobile manufacturers, and clothing manufacturers. Many workers take resumes with them when they visit these employers. Resumes provide workers with the information they need to complete the application.

Writing a resume. A resume describes your background and qualifications in more detail than does a letter of application. It may be enclosed with such a letter or given to an employer before or during an interview. A good resume is neat, well organized, and easy to read. Most are about one or two pages long. A sample resume appears in the Careers article in the print verison of The World Book Encyclopedia.

Begin your resume with your name, address, and telephone number and indicate the kind of job you are seeking. Then list your work experiences, beginning with the most recent. Give the names and addresses of past employers, dates of employment, and a brief description of your duties and function. Indicate any skills you have that relate to the job you are seeking. Also mention any related volunteer work or other activities.

Next, list the names and locations of all schools and training programs you have attended since high school. Include your attendance dates and major subjects plus any degrees, diplomas, certificates, and honors you received. Finally, list any hobbies, travel experience, or other information that applies to the job you are seeking.

Many employers ask for the names and addresses of personal references--that is, people the employer may contact to learn more about you. Some job applicants list three or four personal references in their resumes. Other applicants indicate that such references are available on request.

Completing application forms. Most employers ask job applicants to fill out an application form. Such forms help employers find out about your qualifications. Application forms should be filled out carefully. Make your answers as brief, neat, and complete as possible.

Most application forms request the same kinds of information, and much of the information duplicates that given in resumes. The forms ask for your address, telephone number, social security number, and the title of the job for which you are applying. Most forms also ask about your previous employment, including your employers' and supervisors' names, the dates of your employment, and your duties. The forms further request that you list the schools you attended, the dates you attended them, and any degrees, diplomas, and certificates you received. Many forms request information about your military experience, health, and hobbies. They may also ask for the names and addresses of personal references.

Being interviewed. If your resume or application form indicates you are qualified for a job opening, the employer may ask you to come in for an interview. The interview enables you to learn more about the job opening. It also helps the employer find out if you are the best person to hire for the job.

Most interviewers pay close attention to the way an applicant acts, dresses, and answers questions. You can favorably influence an interviewer by arriving on time and by being polite, sincere, and well organized. Dress as you would for the kind of job you are seeking, unless the workers wear uniforms. The interviewer will probably ask about your interests, your work experience, and your goals. Common questions also include your reasons for applying for the job and what you believe you can contribute to the success of the employer's business. Answer all questions briefly and frankly. You might find it helpful to think out your answers to such questions before an interview.

Many people prepare for a job interview by trying to learn some facts about the employer's business. Such facts might include information on the kinds of products the company manufactures or on the services it provides. This kind of knowledge can help you ask intelligent questions during your interview. It also shows the interviewer that you are interested in the employer's business.

After the interview, send a thank-you letter to the interviewer. If you still want to be considered for the job, say so in your letter. Also ask any further questions you might have.

The world of work

With thousands of career possibilities to choose from, a person exploring career fields could become extremely confused. In an attempt to organize the vast amount of career information, experts have developed a variety of classification systems. Each system groups occupations that are similar in some way.

Career education programs in many schools use a classification system that groups jobs with similar goals and similar work activities. This system divides the various occupations into 15 groups that are known as clusters. These clusters commonly are (1) agribusiness and natural resources, (2) business and office, (3) communications and media, (4) construction, (5) environment, (6) fine arts and humanities, (7) health, ( Cool

home economics, (9) hospitality and recreation, (10) manufacturing, (11) marine science, (12) marketing and distribution, (13) personal services, (14) public service, and (15) transportation.

The occupations included in a cluster require similar abilities and interests but different levels of preparation. The main preparation levels are (1) short on-the-job training, (2) long on-the-job training, (3) specialty level, and (4) university level. These levels indicate the amount of training most workers need to perform their jobs. People who cannot prepare for an occupation in the higher levels of a cluster can find related occupations in the same cluster that require less training.

In jobs with short on-the-job training, a person can learn the work in a few hours or days. Occupations that call for long on-the-job training can be learned through months or years of work experience or through an apprenticeship or a job-training program. Most specialty-level occupations call for training beyond high school at a technical school or a two-year college. Most jobs at the university level require a college degree. Some of these jobs also require additional training at a professional or graduate school.

This section discusses each career cluster individually. It covers occupational groups within the cluster and describes common activities and working conditions. For each cluster, there are examples of jobs at each level of preparation. However, these examples provide only a general guide. Preparation requirements vary among both employers and workers. In addition, some occupations might be included in more than one career cluster, depending on the kind of work that is involved. For example, mechanics who service automobiles are listed within the transportation cluster, and those who repair mining equipment are included in the agribusiness and natural resources cluster.

Agribusiness and natural resources. Many workers in agribusiness and natural resources supply raw materials for much of the food, clothing, energy, shelter, and industrial goods that people require. Some of the jobs in this cluster deal with the production or regulation of natural resources. Other jobs help ensure and improve the quality of raw materials.

Agribusiness includes workers who raise livestock, crops, and ornamental flowers, shrubs, and trees. It also includes people who process and market agricultural products. Other agribusiness workers provide supplies and technical aid to farmers. Still others are involved in the development of new ways to preserve food and in the commercial raising of plants and animals that live in water.

Natural resources occupations include the exploration for and the mining or quarrying of such materials as coal, iron, and gravel. Other jobs include the production of petroleum and natural gas. Forestry occupations involve managing and protecting forests and woodlands and harvesting forest products. Fisheries and wildlife specialists manage and protect fish and wildlife resources. Workers in the area of land and water management are concerned with the administration, conservation, and development of parks, inland and coastal waterways, and hydroelectric power. Research workers look for better ways to produce and use natural resources. Other workers enforce conservation laws and other regulations dealing with natural resources.

Many occupations in this cluster are performed outdoors. In some cases, such as coal mining and fighting forest fires, the work can be unpleasant or dangerous.

The kinds of jobs available in agribusiness and natural resources constantly change. For example, the development of scientific farming methods and modern farm machinery has sharply reduced the need for farm laborers and increased the need for highly trained farmers and other agriculturalists. The development of new equipment and techniques is also expected to decrease opportunities for employment in various mining and quarrying occupations.

Short on-the-job training. Agribusiness workers who can learn their jobs through a short training session include fruit pickers, general farm hands, and turkey raisers. Workers in natural resources who need only a brief training period include fish hatchery workers, loggers, park workers, and quarry workers.

Long on-the-job training. Many farmers and ranchers learn their jobs through years of experience. Other workers who require a long period of training include game wardens, logging supervisors, and sheep herders. Mining and petroleum workers at this level include drillers, miners, mine supervisors, oil pumpers, and mining equipment mechanics.

Specialty level. Agricultural aides, dairy technologists, and poultry technicians require specialty-level training. Natural resources workers who need such training include conservation aides, geological technicians, park rangers, and petroleum-engineering aides.

University level. Many farmers need college courses in agriculture and business to operate modern farms successfully. Other agribusiness workers who require a college education include agronomists and veterinarians. In the natural resources area, such occupations as forester, geologist, mining or petroleum engineer, and zoologist call for a college degree.

Business and office. Every day, businesses, governments, industries, schools, and other organizations produce vast quantities of documents, letters, reports, and other records. Many business and office occupations involve developing, organizing, and analyzing such records.

Almost every office employs clerical workers to perform such tasks as filing, answering telephones, operating office machines, and receiving or distributing cash. Secretaries keep records, take dictation, and compose and edit documents, letters, and reports. Specialists in the area of records systems use bookkeeping and accounting methods and computers to record or analyze information.

Most businesses need management workers to plan and administer company activities and policies and to train and supervise other employees. Personnel specialists interview, hire, test, and dismiss employees. Some also direct training programs or help employees solve personal or work-related problems.

Banks and other financial institutions employ people who arrange loans, manage funds, and perform other related duties. Insurance workers provide many kinds of insurance, such as accident, automobile, fire, health, life, and theft. Real estate workers help people buy, sell, or rent land and buildings. Some are also involved in building management.

Most workers in this cluster perform their duties in business offices during regular business hours. Many office employees, such as cashiers and typists, work with things and often repeat the same kinds of tasks. Other office workers deal with ideas. For example, they may design computer systems, offer financial or legal advice, or analyze financial reports. Employment in business and office occupations is expected to increase through the 1990's. People who are projected to be in greatest demand include accountants, auditors, cashiers, computer operators, receptionists, and real estate workers.

Short on-the-job training. Many beginning office workers have had business courses in high school or vocational school but no job experience. In numerous cases, these workers include accounting clerks, bank tellers, cashiers, messengers, receptionists, and typists. Many employees in lower-level occupations advance to more responsible jobs as they gain experience.

Long on-the-job training. Most bookkeepers, court clerks, and insurance adjusters learn their job skills in vocational school or through lengthy on-the-job training. Other workers at this level include insurance, personnel, and real estate clerks. A majority of workers at this level also need special training to learn how to operate complicated business machines.

Specialty level. Many executive, legal, and medical secretaries are graduates of a two-year college or technical institute. Other workers at this level include some computer programmers and real estate salespeople.

University level. Most accountants, bankers, business executives, economists, personnel directors, and statisticians have a college education. Many of them also hold a graduate degree. Lawyers must have a degree from a law school.

Communications and media. The field of communications and media (means of communication) involves the processing and transmitting of information. Some workers gather and report the news, provide entertainment, or translate foreign languages. Other workers operate or service equipment that is used in communications.

Journalism and publishing communicate information through books, magazines, newspapers, and other printed materials. Workers in this area write, edit, illustrate, print, and distribute such materials. Radio and television broadcasting includes developing, producing, and transmitting radio and TV programs. It also involves servicing broadcasting and receiving equipment. Workers in telephone communications transmit messages and install, maintain, and repair telephone equipment. Workers in the area of satellite and laser transmissions operate and service the equipment that is used in such communications.

Occupations in the motion-picture industry involve creating and producing films. Workers in the recording industry reproduce sounds on compact discs or tapes and sell and distribute these recordings. Occupations in the field of language interpretation help people understand foreign languages or signs and symbols, such as those used in braille.

Working conditions differ for various occupations in the communications and media cluster. Many workers perform their duties in offices, shops, or studios. Journalists may be sent to combat and disaster areas. Many jobs require well-developed language skills. In general, the employment outlook for jobs in this cluster is favorable. Most occupations in this field will be increasingly affected by the use of computers, lasers, satellites, videotape recorders, and other modern communications technology.

Short on-the-job training is required for film projectionists, film splicers, and stagehands. Some of the workers at this preparation level take care of the costumes and sets used in television and motion-picture productions. Other workers include those who assist telephone line installers and repairers.

Long on-the-job training. Many workers who operate and repair communications equipment learn their skills through an apprenticeship or other lengthy training program. Other workers at this preparation level include braille translators, camera operators, makeup artists, proofreaders, script clerks, sound effects technicians, and wardrobe personnel.

Specialty level. Many photographers and radio and television announcers obtain training at a two-year college or a technical institute. Some graduates of technical institutes become technicians who help produce radio or TV broadcasts or movies. Other graduates help develop new communications systems.

University level. College courses can help students develop their communications skills and gain a better understanding of world affairs. Therefore, most journalists and scriptwriters have a college degree. Other workers with college training include producers; program directors; radio, television, and telephone engineers; and radio and TV station managers.

Construction. Occupations in construction deal with building, modernizing, and repairing houses, factories, and other kinds of buildings. Construction workers also build and repair such structures as bridges, dams, and highways.

Workers in construction range from unskilled laborers to highly skilled professionals. Employees in the area of design include architects and civil engineers, who draw up plans for a structure and choose the materials to be used. Contractors estimate building costs and schedule and supervise construction work. Workers in the area of materials distribution buy and sell building materials and supplies. Workers in management help construction companies operate smoothly.

Most construction workers specialize in certain building materials. For example, carpenters and other woodworkers use wood in constructing buildings and such building features as floors and frames. Metalworkers perform such jobs as pipe fitting and welding. They also install plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning systems. Masonry workers use bricks, cement, stones, and similar materials to build foundations, sidewalks, walls, and other structures. They also plaster surfaces and lay tiles. Electrical specialists install wiring and electrical fixtures. Finishing workers paint, wallpaper, landscape, install windows, and do other tasks to complete a building. Heavy-equipment operators run and maintain construction machinery. Such machinery includes bulldozers and cranes.

Numerous construction jobs take place outdoors or in partly completed buildings. In many cases, work on such jobs stops during bad weather. Much of the work requires standing, bending, or stooping for long periods. In addition, construction workers are more likely to be injured on the job than are most other kinds of workers. Employment opportunities in construction depend heavily on economic conditions. When money is plentiful, people tend to build new homes and factories. When money is scarce, they try to economize by having their old buildings repaired or remodeled. Some specialists in construction are expected to have more job opportunities through the 1990's than other workers in this field. Such specialists include architects, civil engineers, experts in computerized construction design, and carpet installers.

Short on-the-job training. Most construction laborers can learn their jobs in a short training session. Some laborers help prepare a building site by tearing down existing structures. Others load trucks or set up scaffolding. Some laborers assist bricklayers, carpenters, and other skilled workers.

Long on-the-job training. Skilled personnel make up the largest group of construction workers. Many learn their trade through an apprenticeship. Others attend vocational school or learn through long on-the-job training. Skilled construction workers include bricklayers, carpenters, electricians, painters, and plumbers. Other skilled workers operate bulldozers or cranes and install windows, elevators, or heating systems.

Specialty level. Some graduates of technical institutes become drafters or surveyors. Drafters use special instruments to draw diagrams that show how a structure should be built. Surveyors measure a construction site to determine its boundaries and other characteristics. Some plumbers, electricians, and other skilled workers train at vocational schools.

University level. Architects, civil engineers, and electrical engineers require college training. Many managers and contractors in the construction industry also have a college education.

Environment. Environmental specialists are concerned with protecting and improving the environment. Some environmentalists do scientific research to increase our knowledge about the environment. Other workers use such knowledge to help solve environmental problems. Still other environmentalists help develop, work for the passage of, and enforce antipollution laws and conservation regulations.

Environmentalists specialize in a variety of fields. Some of them work to prevent and control air, water, soil, and noise pollution. Others conduct experiments to discover how pollutants affect the atmosphere and weather conditions.

In the field of water resources, some workers design and operate water purification systems and water treatment plants. Others develop irrigation and other water supply systems. Environmentalists concerned with soil and mineral conservation work to protect the land from erosion and from pollution by chemical fertilizers and pesticides. They also instruct farmers and mining companies in production techniques that cause the least possible damage to the land.

Such environmental conditions as pests, pollution, and improper waste disposal can present health hazards to members of a community. Experts in the field of disease prevention and health planning work to control and prevent such hazards. Many environmentalists are involved in planning how to make the best present and future use of the environment. Some of them work to preserve forests, rangelands, shorelines, and wildlife and to develop recreational areas. City planners cooperate with sociologists and other experts to develop and provide the best possible environment for urban dwellers. Other specialists plan for the development of rural areas.

Environmentalists are employed by colleges and universities, government agencies, and private industries. Some work in classrooms, laboratories, or offices. Other environmentalists work mostly outdoors. Employment in some environmental fields is expected to increase through the 1990's as people become more and more concerned about the quality of the environment. In recent years, workers who specialize in the disposal of nuclear and other hazardous wastes have been in great demand.

Short on-the-job training. Campground caretakers, forest fire fighters, fire patrollers, and tree planters require only a short training session to perform their job. Other workers at this level include orchard fumigators and sewage disposal workers.

Long on-the-job training is required for many workers who operate and service pollution control equipment. Such workers include incinerator and water treatment plant operators and sewage plant attendants. Fire wardens, park maintenance supervisors, and some laboratory assistants also learn their jobs through lengthy work experience.

Specialty level. Numerous land use technicians, pest control experts, radiation monitors, safety inspectors, and other environmental specialists are trained at technical institutes or two-year colleges. Most forester aides and park rangers also need such preparation to perform their jobs.

University level. Chemists, ecologists, microbiologists, soil scientists, and other university-trained scientists work as environmental researchers, inspectors, and planners. Most foresters, range managers, and other natural resources managers also need a college education. So do industrial hygienists, mining engineers, park naturalists, and traffic engineers.

Fine arts and humanities. Literature, music, painting, sculpture, and other arts enrich the lives of most people. In addition, religious faith, a sense of history, and other cultural values add meaning to many people's lives. The fine arts and humanities are concerned with creating beauty and with expressing, studying, and preserving ideas and cultural values.

Workers in the fine arts convey thoughts and feelings through various creative activities. Many of these workers also entertain people. The fine arts consist of the visual arts, the performing arts, and creative writing. The visual arts include such fields as painting, photography, sculpture, and textile design. Dance, music, and theater are performing arts. Creative writing involves the production of original literary works, such as novels, plays, and poems.

Workers in the humanities are concerned with the moral, social, and artistic values of a culture and its members. Fields in the humanities include history, religion, philosophy, and linguistics (the scientific study of language).

Most workers in the fine arts and humanities have to compete intensely for job openings. Competition in the performing arts is especially strong. The number of talented performers seeking employment is much greater than the number of jobs available. As a result, many performers also do other kinds of work to help support themselves. Writers and artists also face serious job competition. Some writers and artists are employed by business firms and receive a salary. Others work on their own and earn money by selling their works. However, many of these people must also hold other jobs to support themselves.

Short on-the-job training. Stagehands and certain other workers involved in theatrical and musical productions require only a short training session. Some of the musicians and singers who work in the field of popular music also have little or no training beyond high school.

Long on-the-job training. Many workers who help produce plays and other artistic performances learn their job skills through an apprenticeship or other long training period. Such workers include stage electricians, stage managers, and operators of sound, lighting, and other production equipment.

Specialty level. Many commercial photographers, interior designers, and museum technicians have had specialized training at a technical institute or a community college. Other workers at this preparation level include editorial assistants, layout artists, and photograph retouchers.

University level. In the fine arts, many art directors, authors, composers, conductors, and sculptors have a college education. A large number of illustrators, paintings restorers, and technical writers are also college trained. A college education, as well as a graduate degree, is required for most people who work in the humanities. Many of these workers become college or university teachers. Others work as archivists, curators, historians, or linguists for various organizations. Still others pursue a religious vocation as ministers, nuns, priests, or rabbis.

Health. Workers in health occupations help people live healthier and happier lives. The services involved in health-care occupations range from teaching children how to brush their teeth to performing a kidney transplant.

Physicians and nurses are among the best-known health workers. However, many other kinds of workers are needed to provide complete health care. For example, some workers in the area of medical support help patients learn to use artificial arms or legs. Other workers in this area help patients overcome hearing or sight problems, or they design special diets for individuals. Dentists and other dentistry specialists treat and help prevent diseases and abnormalities of the teeth and gums. Mental health workers help prevent and treat mental illnesses. Medical emergency specialists care for patients in hospital emergency rooms or in ambulances. Personal and community health workers look after patients at home. These workers also help community members develop good health habits.

Research scientists and laboratory assistants study biological processes and the causes of diseases. They also help physicians make diagnoses. Pharmacists fill prescriptions. Pharmacologists study the effects of drugs on living things.

Many occupations keep health services operating efficiently. Hospitals, clinics, and other health-care centers are supervised by administrators. Clerical workers keep patients' records, order supplies, and perform many other tasks. Medical librarians and other workers in the field of health information help doctors keep informed about medical advances.

Many health workers work evening or late-night shifts. Some jobs require workers to stand for long periods or to deal with seriously ill or injured patients. In general, jobs in the health cluster are expected to increase considerably through the 1990's. Among the health workers projected to be in greatest demand are dental assistants and hygienists, hospital orderlies, nurses, nurses' aides, physical therapists, and veterinarians.

Short on-the-job training is required for some beginning nurses' aides and hospital orderlies. Other workers at this level include diet clerks, home health aides, and medical office clerks and receptionists.

Long on-the-job training. Ambulance drivers, medical records clerks, occupational therapy aides, and psychiatric aides require vocational school courses or lengthy job training. Orthopedic (bone) cast specialists also need long on-the-job training.

Specialty level. Many graduates of technical institutes assist doctors or dentists directly or help them by doing laboratory work. Such specialists include dental hygienists, medical assistants, practical nurses, veterinary technicians, and X-ray technicians.

University level. Dentists, hospital administrators, medical doctors, pharmacists, psychiatrists, and veterinarians require specialized training beyond college. Other health-care workers who need training beyond college include chiropractors, dietitians, medical technologists, optometrists, physical therapists, podiatrists, and registered nurses.

Home economics. Home and family life plays an important part in most people's lives. Occupations in home economics deal with managing households effectively and improving the quality of family life. They also are concerned with helping consumers learn how to shop wisely.

Home economics includes many specialized fields. Workers in the field of food service study human nutritional needs and help develop and improve food products. Some of these workers manage food services in schools, hospitals, and other institutions. Other workers maintain, operate, and sanitize food-handling equipment. Still others are involved in the advertising, sale, or delivery of food products.

In the field of clothing and textiles, some workers develop, test, or produce fabrics. Others design or produce clothing. Additional occupations in this field include dry cleaning and the advertising, buying, or selling of clothing or textiles. In the field of housing and household equipment, some workers deal with the design and interior decoration of homes. Other workers develop, test, and improve household equipment and products.

Many workers in the area of family and community services offer family counseling services, assist elderly citizens, and help parents learn how to care for their children. Many others perform housekeeping and household maintenance tasks. Occupations in the field of child care deal with the emotional and intellectual development of children. Workers care for children in the home, in institutions, or in child-care centers. Another home economics field, extension service, deals with teaching community members such homemaking skills as selecting household appliances, planning and preparing nutritious meals, and managing family finances. Extension service agents also help guide 4-H club programs throughout the United States.

Many people, especially women, choose homemaking as a career. Homemakers work to create a healthful and comfortable home for their family. In doing so, they practice many of the same skills that other home economics workers use.

Some home economics specialists work in offices. Others are employed in test kitchens or laboratories. Still others work in stores or schools or provide their services in people's homes. Openings for many kinds of jobs in this cluster, especially the teaching of home economics at the high school level, are fairly competitive. However, opportunities for workers with the elderly are expected to be favorable through the 1990's. Kitchen helpers and other food service workers are also expected to be in great demand.

Short on-the-job training is required for dry-cleaning machine operators and many food service workers. Some nursing home and child-care aides also need only a short training session.

Long on-the-job training. Some food service supervisors and management aides learn their jobs through a long training period. Other workers at this level include electric equipment testers, comparison shoppers, and some fashion models.

Specialty level. Technicians who work in the area of food processing, household products, and textiles commonly require two years of specialized training. Other workers at this level include sewing instructors and some institutional cooks and housekeepers.

University level. Many home economics workers need four years of college or more. They include directors of consumer education, extension service specialists, fashion designers, nutritionists, and textile chemists.

Hospitality and recreation. Workers in the field of hospitality and recreation provide services that help people enjoy their leisure time. Hospitality occupations involve tourism and other travel for pleasure. Jobs in the field of recreation deal with the planning, organizing, and directing of various recreational activities. Recreation jobs also involve providing people with entertainment and amusements.

Workers in travel bureaus and travel agencies help people plan vacations and tours. Travel bureaus provide tourist information about cities, countries, and regions. Travel agencies provide information about restaurants, transportation, hotels and other accommodations, and travel requirements and regulations. They also make airline and hotel reservations and other travel arrangements.

Specialists in tour management, including tour conductors and travel guides, try to make tourists comfortable as they travel. They also help tourists learn about the areas and attractions they visit.

Occupations in the area of public, industrial, and private recreation involve sports and entertainment. This area includes sports instructors, professional athletes, recreation directors, circus and carnival workers, and certain stage performers. Many recreation workers provide services that help people enjoy natural resources. Some of these workers manage and maintain such recreation areas as beaches, forests, and wildlife parks. Other workers include lifeguards, zookeepers, and hunting and fishing guides. People who plan, develop, or sell recreation areas and equipment are also grouped in this cluster.

Most hospitality and recreation occupations involve dealing with people, and some jobs require special physical abilities. Educational requirements vary for occupations in this cluster. However, a college degree in recreation is becoming increasingly important for people entering the recreation field. Employment opportunities for hospitality and recreation workers are dependent on economic conditions but are expected to increase through the 1990's.

Short on-the-job training. Attendants at bowling lanes, golf courses, skating rinks, tennis courts, and similar recreation centers require very little training. Deck stewards and stewardesses, ski-tow operators, travel agency clerks, and ushers also need only a short training session to perform their jobs.

Long on-the-job training. Many hospitality and recreation workers learn their duties through lengthy training on the job or in vocational school. These workers include railroad ticket clerks, tour conductors, and travel agents. A majority of animal trainers, hunting and fishing guides, lifeguards, and zookeepers also require special courses or long on-the-job training. In addition, many professional entertainers, such as circus performers, puppeteers, and ventriloquists learn their skills from experienced performers.

Specialty level. Recreation directors, travel guides, and many professional athletes need about two years of specialized training beyond high school. Numerous camp counselors, golf course managers, and theater managers also have such training.

University level. Numerous managers and other workers in hospitality and recreation have a college education. These workers include a large number of advertising and publicity specialists, athletics directors and trainers, recreation center directors, and travel writers. In addition, many professional athletes attend college and play on college teams before entering professional sports.

Manufacturing includes all occupations that are involved in making products by hand or by machine. These products range from simple plastic or wooden objects, such as clothespins or toothpicks, to highly complicated electronic computers. Manufactured goods also vary in size, from microscopic electronic parts to giant aircraft carriers and supertankers.

About two-thirds of the workers in manufacturing actually make products. These employees include craftworkers, skilled and semiskilled workers, and unskilled laborers. Craftworkers are highly skilled in such trades as tool designing, tool and die making, and tailoring. Many craftworkers supervise other e
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Roland Camilleri

Moderator

Sydney , Australia.