SWEDEN

ROLCAM · Posted: Fri Jul 27, 2007 7:05 am Post subject: SWEDEN

Sweden is a prosperous industrial nation in northern Europe. The people of Sweden have developed highly prosperous industries based on their country's three most important natural resources--timber, iron ore, and water power.

The Swedish standard of living is one of the highest in the world. Sweden ranks among the leading European nations in the number of automobiles, telephones, and television sets it has in relation to its population. Another measure of the nation's prosperity is that Swedes spend more money per person on vacations than any other people in Europe. About a fifth of all Swedish families have country homes where they can enjoy spending weekends and vacations.

Sweden's way of life has often been called the "middle way," because it combines private enterprise with a government that greatly influences the development of the economy. The Swedish government operates one of the most far-reaching social security systems in the world.

The government of Sweden provides free education and largely free medical service. It pays pensions to old people, widows, and orphans. After most Swedes retire, they receive annual pensions of about 65 percent of their average earnings during their 15 highest paid years. The government also provides health insurance and financial aid for housing.

Sweden is one of the largest European countries in area. However, Sweden is also one of the most thinly populated European nations. Forests of such trees as spruce and pine cover more than half of Sweden, and only about a tenth of the country is farmland. Sweden is also a land of beautiful lakes, snow-capped mountains, swift rivers, and rocky offshore islands.

Stockholm, Sweden's capital and largest city, stands on the coast of the Baltic Sea and includes small offshore islands. Almost a sixth of the people of Sweden live in Stockholm or its suburbs.

The northern seventh of Sweden lies inside the Arctic Circle in a region called the Land of the Midnight Sun. There, for periods during the summer, the sun shines 24 hours a day. Above the Arctic Circle is part of a wilderness called Lapland. Lapland extends into Finland, Norway, and Russia. For hundreds of years, people called Lapps have led a wandering life tending their herds of reindeer.

Sweden, together with Denmark and Norway, is one of the Scandinavian countries. Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians speak similar languages and can usually understand each other. The three Scandinavian nations have close economic and cultural ties.

Government

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with a king or queen, a prime minister and Cabinet, and a parliament. The country had the same constitution from 1809 to 1975, when a new constitution went into effect. The 1809 constitution gave the king executive power, but divided legislative power between the king and parliament. The power of parliament gradually increased, and parliamentary rule was established in 1917. Under the 1975 constitution, the king lost his remaining executive powers and became a ceremonial figure, though he remained head of state. In 1980, a constitutional change made the royal couple's eldest child--male or female--heir to the throne. Today, the monarch formally opens the sessions of parliament and must be present at the meeting at which the former prime minister turns over the government to the new prime minister.

National government. Executive power lies in the hands of the prime minister and other members of the Cabinet. The prime minister is nominated by the speaker of Sweden's parliament and must be confirmed by members of parliament.

The prime minister is usually the leader of the largest political party in parliament or the designated leader of a coalition (combination of political parties) that includes a majority of the members of parliament. On rare occasions, the leader of a smaller party or a minority coalition has served as prime minister. The prime minister appoints the remaining Cabinet members. Ministries and central administrative agencies, which are made up partly of civil servants, carry out the work of the government.

Sweden's parliament, called the Riksdag, is a one-house legislature. It has 349 members, who are elected for three-year terms.

Voters choose 310 of the members of parliament by voting for political parties in their local districts, called constituencies. The remaining 39 seats are distributed among the parties according to each party's proportion of the nationwide vote. A party must win at least 4 percent of the nationwide vote, or 12 percent in any constituency, in order to receive any seats in the parliament. All Swedish citizens 18 years and older may vote in national elections.

The Riksdag meets in full session from October through May. During this time, the Riksdag hears and debates the Cabinet's legislative proposals. The Riksdag has the power to remove the entire Cabinet or an individual Cabinet member from office through a vote of no confidence.

Ombudsmen. The Riksdag appoints officials called ombudsmen to protect citizens from the illegal or incompetent use of power by government officials or agencies. Specialized ombudsmen offices exist for issues involving antitrust and competition, consumer affairs, equal opportunity in work, and allegations of ethnic discrimination. An ombudsman for the press is appointed by a special committee.

The ombudsmen, who are assisted by expert staffs, may either initiate their own investigations or respond to the complaints of citizens. Sweden created the office of ombudsman in 1809 to help ensure that judges, civil servants, and military officers observed the laws. It was the first country to have an ombudsman. See OMBUDSMAN.

Politics. The Social Democratic Party ranks as Sweden's largest political party. The Social Democratic Party has controlled the country's government most of the time since 1932. This socialist party helped establish the country's welfare system.

The Moderate Party, a nonsocialist party, ranks as Sweden's second largest political party. The country's other political parties include the Center Party, the Christian Democratic Community Party, the Green Party, the Left Party, and the Liberal Party.

Local government. Sweden's 24 counties have separate governments. Each county is administered by a governor appointed by the government and a council elected by the people.

Courts. District courts serve the towns and counties of Sweden. Regional courts of appeal hear appeals from the district courts.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country. This court hears final appeals in important civil and criminal cases.

Armed forces. Swedish men between the ages of 18 and 47 are required to serve from 7 1/2 to 15 months in the country's armed forces. The nation's regular army, navy, and air force have a total of approximately 45,000 members.

People

Sweden is one of the most thinly populated countries of Europe. Most of Sweden's people live in urban areas, which are located mainly in the center and south of the country. About a third of the people live in or near Sweden's three largest cities--Stockholm, Goteborg, and Malmo.

Ancestry. People of Finnish origin make up Sweden's largest ethnic minority. There are about 50,000 ethnic Finns in Sweden. Most of them live in the northern part of the country or along the eastern coast. The Finns are fully integrated into Swedish society. They are recognized more by their accent than by their appearance or occupation.

The Lapps, who live in the far north, are another large ethnic group in Sweden. The Lapps differ in appearance, language, and way of life from most other Swedes (see LAPLAND). About 17,000 Lapps live in Sweden. Many Lapps are miners or lumberjacks. Since the mid-1900's, most Lapps have settled in towns and villages. However, the men of some families still care for herds of reindeer, wandering over the land as their ancestors did. People from a number of other countries--especially Denmark, Norway, and Turkey--also have settled in Sweden.

Ancestry. Most Swedes are descendants of ancient Germanic tribes who settled in the Scandinavian region beginning in 8000 to 5000 B.C. They are thus closely related to the Danes and Norwegians. Most people who are Swedish are tall, and have fair or brown hair and blue eyes.

Language. Swedish is a Germanic language that closely resembles Danish and Norwegian. People from Sweden, Denmark, and Norway can usually understand each other.

Spoken and written Swedish are similar throughout the country, but some regional dialects exist. Many Swedes of Finnish origin speak Finnish as their first language but learn Swedish beginning at an early age in school. The Lapps speak a language that is related to Finnish. The majority of adult Swedes speak some English, and in many cases, they speak a second foreign language as well.

Way of life

Sweden is a land of striking physical and visual contrasts. While it is a highly urbanized nation, it also has countless lakes and vast stretches of forests scattered with villages and towns.

City life. Sweden's cities are modern and efficient. They feature blends of traditional and functional modern architecture. Many cities in Sweden, especially Stockholm and Kalmar on the southeastern coast, have imposing castles and churches dating from the Middle Ages. Suburbs of the larger cities have high-rise apartment buildings. Many of these buildings were built during the 1950's and 1960's in response to rapid urbanization.

Highways and public transportation facilities, such as railways and buses, link Sweden's city centers and suburbs. In addition, Stockholm has a sprawling subway system. As in other industrialized nations, highway congestion presents a daily challenge for people who work and live in Sweden's cities. However, because Sweden relies heavily on electrical energy for heating and industry, pollution is less of a problem there than in many other countries.

Rural life. Economic and social development in Sweden have caused a diminishing of economic differences between urban and rural residents. As a result, people in rural areas maintain a standard of living similar to that of urban dwellers, because the government provides special payments and other supports to farmers and because many rural citizens work in industry or services in nearby towns. In addition, many people who live in rural areas work part-time on farms and part-time in factories.

Religion. The Lutheran Church is the state church of Sweden, and about 95 percent of the people are members. The monarch must be a member. But in 1995, the Swedish government and the Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Church agreed to end the status of the Lutheran Church as a state church by 2000. Most Swedes do not attend church regularly, but the country's churches are full on religious holidays.

Other religious groups in Sweden include Roman Catholics, the Mission Covenant Church, Pentecostals, Baptists, and Jews. Some immigrants are Eastern Orthodox or Muslim.

The churches pioneered much welfare work in the country, but the government has taken over most of this work. Swedish churches have a long tradition of missionary activities, particularly the Lutheran Church in India and South Africa.

Food and drink. Sweden is famous for smorgasbord, an assortment of cold and hot foods placed on a large table for self-service. Smorgasbord is served on holidays, in fine restaurants, and on board many Swedish cruise ships. Swedes often eat the foods in a particular order. First they eat cold fish dishes, including anchovies, eels, herring, salmon, sardines, and shrimp. Next, they eat such cold meats as liver pate, smoked reindeer, sliced beef, and ham with vegetable salad. Next come small hot dishes, such as meatballs, omelets, sausages, anchovies, or herring cooked in breadcrumbs. Favorite desserts include cheese, fresh fruit, fruit salad, and pastry.

On a daily basis, Swedes usually eat more simple fare. Breakfast often consists of cold cereal or a pastry and strong coffee or milk. Lunch may consist of open-faced sandwiches on thin, hard bread. Dinner is often a meat or fish dish with boiled potatoes.

Swedes, like their Scandinavian neighbors, drink vast quantities of coffee at mealtime and during breaks from work. Many Swedes also enjoy beer, which is sometimes accompanied by a strong, colorless liquor known as aquavit. They also drink vodka, wine, and other alcoholic beverages.

Education. The Swedish government requires children from 7 to 16 years of age to attend school. Elementary and high school education are free for Swedish children. The government also operates all the universities and most of the technical and other specialized colleges in the country.

Many children under the age of 7 attend kindergartens run by private individuals or organizations. The government assists the kindergartens, but attendance is not required.

The Swedish primary school, called the grundskola, has three three-year divisions. The junior stage consists of first grade through third grade, and the intermediate stage covers fourth grade through sixth grade. The senior stage consists of seventh through ninth grade. In the seventh and eighth grades, students begin to choose their own subjects. In the ninth grade, they select one of nine courses of study. Most pupils continue their general education. Others also learn such practical skills as home economics or workshop methods. Some select special courses in languages, technology, or commerce. Every child in the fourth through seventh grade is required to study English, and about 90 per cent continue English after that.

After completing the grundskola, some children go to a secondary school. Since 1966, there have been three kinds of secondary schools. The three-year upper secondary schools prepare students to attend a university. The two-year continuation schools give courses in social, economic, and technical subjects. The vocational schools offer day and evening courses for one to three years in such subjects as industry, handicrafts, and home economics.

Sweden has six universities--in Goteborg, Linkoping, Lund, Stockholm, Umea, and Uppsala. The oldest, the University of Uppsala, was founded in 1477.

Libraries and museums. Sweden has four general research libraries--the Royal Library in Stockholm and the university libraries in Goteborg, Lund, and Uppsala. The Royal Library, established in the 1600's, has a large collection of early Swedish manuscripts. Sweden also has about 400 public libraries.

Leading museums include the Skansen open-air museum, which exhibits old Swedish houses, and the Nationalmuseum, which has a collection of Swedish sculpture and paintings. Both museums are located in Stockholm.

Recreation. The Swedes are an athletic people and like outdoor activities. Skiing and hockey are the chief winter sports. Every March, thousands of Swedes take part in a cross-country ski race called the Vasa Race, held in the province of Dalarna. The race covers about 55 miles (89 kilometers). Hunting and fishing are also popular outdoor activities in Sweden. Hunters shoot deer, fox, moose, and various wild fowl. Game fish include pike, salmon, and trout. When the rivers are frozen, people cut holes in the ice and drop their fishing lines through them.

The people of Sweden also like hiking and camping, soccer, swimming, sailing, and tennis. A number of Swedes, including Bjorn Borg and Stefan Edberg, have become international tennis stars. Graceful exercises called gymnastics are popular in Sweden and are a feature of school training.

Many Swedes spend their vacations by the sea or on the country's offshore islands, such as Gotland or oland. Others relax near one of Sweden's many lakes or in the vast wilderness that covers the northern part of the country. Tourists enjoy three-day trips along the Gota Canal, which flows across southern Sweden. This canal links lakes and rivers, making a trip of about 350 miles (560 kilometers) from Goteborg to Stockholm. In cities, people enjoy Sweden's many urban parks, or sip coffee and watch passers-by at sidewalk cafes.

Holidays. The major winter festivals in Sweden take place in December. On December 13, the Swedes celebrate St. Lucia Day, the Festival of Light. Before dawn, young girls dress in white with a crown of evergreen leaves. They awaken their families with a traditional song and serve them hot coffee and buns. Swedes have their Christmas celebration on Christmas Eve. Families gather for dinner, which usually includes ham and a fish course. After dinner, everyone receives presents. Lucia Day).

Midsummer's Eve festivities are held on the Friday between June 19 and 26. The people celebrate the return of summer to Sweden. They stay up most of the night and dance around gaily decorated Maypoles. Flag Day, the national holiday, is June 6. The monarch presents the national flag to Swedish organizations and societies at a special ceremony.

Social welfare. The Swedes pay high taxes, but the government provides many welfare benefits. Every family receives an allowance for (1) each child under 16 and (2) each child in a secondary school or university. The government helps newly married couples by providing loans for home furnishings. In some cases of hardship, it pays up to a fourth of a family's rent. It also guarantees every employed person a five-week annual vacation with pay. Some single parents with low incomes receive allowances for vacations with their children.

Swedes who lose their jobs receive unemployment benefits representing a high proportion of their former earnings. The people have largely free medical service. After retirement, most Swedes receive annual pensions of about 65 per cent of their average earnings during their 15 highest paid years. The government also provides pensions for widows, orphans, and children who have lost one parent.

Arts

Literature. The roots of Swedish literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages, but the first internationally recognized Swedish authors did not appear until the 1800's. August Strindberg became the most influential writer in Swedish literary history with his novels and plays of the late 1800's and early 1900's. Strindberg's plays, because of their surrealistic quality and bold themes, especially helped revolutionize modern drama.

A number of Swedish authors have been honored with Nobel Prizes for literature in the 1900's. In 1909, Selma Lagerlof became the first Swede to receive the prize. She still ranks as the country's best-known novelist for her stories about life in her native Varmland. Other Nobel Prize winners were Verner von Heidenstam in 1916 for his poetry, Eric Axel Karlfeldt in 1931 for his lyric poems, Par Fabian Lagerkvist in 1951 for his novels, and Eyvind Johnson and Harry Edmund Martinson in 1974. The last two writers shared the prize, Johnson for his novels and short stories and Martinson for his dramas, essays, novels, and poems.

In the middle and late 1900's, the husband-and-wife team of Maj Sjowall and Per Wahloo gained international popularity for their series of novels about Stockholm policeman Martin Beck.

Fine arts. Few Swedish artists have gained international recognition. Most Swedish painters, sculptors, and architects have followed styles developed elsewhere in Europe. During the early 1900's, Carl Milles became the best-known Swedish sculptor, primarily for his monuments and sculpture fountains. Painter Anders Zorn won a reputation in the late 1800's and early 1900's for his landscapes and portraits. In architecture, Ragnar ostberg designed the Stockholm City Hall, which was completed in 1923. The hall's modern style influenced architects throughout Scandinavia.

Industrial design. Sweden, along with other Scandinavian countries, made its greatest contribution to the arts in the field of industrial design. Scandinavia became influential in industrial design in the 1920's and 1930's with the creation of simple, harmonious textiles, furniture, glassware, and ceramics. Swedish furniture designers emphasized light-colored wood and bright upholstery and drapery.

Music. Classical music in Sweden generally has followed the models of the major composers and movements of other European countries. Sweden has an important folk music tradition that extends back to the Middle Ages. The Swedish soprano Jenny Lind became one of the most famous opera and concert singers of the 1800's. Tenor Jussi Bjoerling and dramatic soprano Birgit Nilsson rank among the greatest opera singers of the 1900's.

Motion pictures. Sweden developed an important motion-picture industry in the early 1900's. Victor Sjostrom and Mauritz Stiller were two influential directors of the era. Many of their films were based on Scandinavian literature. The famous movie actress Greta Garbo began her career in Swedish silent films before moving to the United States in 1925. Ingrid Bergman was another movie actress who started her career in Sweden and then achieved fame in the United States. The most important figure in modern Swedish motion pictures is director Ingmar Bergman. He achieved worldwide recognition for his symbolic, brilliantly photographed films.

The land

Sweden occupies the eastern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. From Sweden's hilly and, in parts, mountainous border with Norway, the land slopes gently eastward to the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea. The country's scenery varies from the unpopulated, treeless Kolen Mountains in the northwest to the fertile plains in the south. Thousands of lakes cover about a twelfth of the country's area.

The long Swedish coastline has sandy beaches in the south and rocky cliffs in parts of the west and north. Many groups of small islands lie off the coast. Sweden's largest islands are Gotland, a fertile island covering about 1,160 square miles (3,004 square kilometers), and Oland, which covers about 520 square miles (1,350 square kilometers). Both islands are located in the Baltic Sea.

Sweden has four main land regions: (1) the Mountain Range, (2) the Inner Northland, (3) the Swedish Lowland, and (4) the South Swedish Highland.

The Mountain Range is part of the Kolen Mountains. Sweden's northern boundary with Norway runs through these mountains, which Norwegians call the Kjolen Mountains. Hundreds of small glaciers cover the higher slopes of the snow-capped range. Sweden's highest mountain, 6,926-foot (2,111-meter) Mount Kebnekaise, is in this rugged region.

The land is completely treeless above about 1,600 feet (488 meters) in the northernmost part of the mountains. There, the climate is too cold for trees. Some birch trees grow on the warmer, lower slopes.

The Inner Northland is a vast, thinly populated, hilly region. Great forests of pine and spruce trees cover most of the land, and lumbering is an important industry. Many swift rivers flow southeast across the Inner Northland, and provide much hydroelectric power. The rivers have formed deep, narrow valleys, some of which have long lakes. The valleys broaden toward the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia. Most of the region's people live in these valleys or on the coast.

The Torne River forms part of the boundary between the Inner Northland and Finland. Other rivers in the region include the Lule, the Ume, the angerman, and the Dal rivers. Bergslagen, a hilly area rich in minerals, lies south of the Dal River in the southernmost part of the Inner Northland.

The Swedish Lowland has more people than any other part of the country. This region includes the central and southern plains of Sweden. The broad central plains are broken by lakes, tree-covered ridges, and small hills. Farmland covers more than 40 per cent of these plains.

Sweden's largest lakes, Vanern and Vattern, are in the Swedish Lowland. Lake Vanern covers 2,156 square miles (5,584 square kilometers) and is one of the largest lakes in Europe. Lake Vattern has an area of 738 square miles (1,911 square kilometers).

The southern plains include some of Sweden's most fertile land. Farmland and forests of beechwood cover most of Skane, in the far south of the country. Skane is the most thickly populated and richest farming area of Sweden.

The South Swedish Highland, also called the Gotaland Plateau, is a rocky upland that rises to about 1,200 feet (366 meters) above sea level. This thinly populated area has poor, stony soils, and is covered mostly by forests. The southern part of the region is flat, with small lakes and swamps.

Climate

The climate of Sweden varies greatly between the southern and northern parts of the country. Southwesterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean give southern Sweden pleasant summers and mostly mild winters. In contrast, northern Sweden has pleasant summers but cold winters. The Atlantic winds are blocked by the Kolen Mountains, and therefore have less effect on northern Sweden.

In the extreme south of Sweden, temperatures in January and February, the coldest months, average 32 °F (0 °C). In Kiruna, in the far north of the country, temperatures average about 10 °F (-12 °C) during these months. In July, Sweden's warmest month, temperatures average from 59 to 63 °F (15 to 17 °C) in the south, and 54 to 57 °F (12 to 14 °C) in the north. In winter, eastern air masses may lower the temperature to -10 °F (-23 °C) in Stockholm, and to -45 °F (-43 °C) in the northern part of Sweden.

Rainfall is generally greater in the Kolen Mountains and the southern highlands than on the plains that border the Gulf of Bothnia. In the south, snow covers the ground in January and February. The north has snow from mid-October through mid-April.

Economy

Sweden is a highly industrialized nation. Its prosperous economy is based on a combination of advanced engineering and service industries. It also relies heavily on exports. About 90 percent of Swedish industry is privately owned. Government ownership is restricted primarily to mines, public transportation, energy, and telecommunications.

Abundant natural resources, such as vast forests and rich deposits of iron ore, helped change Sweden from a poor agricultural nation to the advanced industrial society it is today. Hydroelectric power, along with nuclear power plants, provide much of the nation's energy needs. Rich farmland in the south and central regions of Sweden provides most of the country's food.

Sweden's economic development resulted from the close cooperation among government, employer groups, and labor unions. These groups have sought to promote full employment through a labor policy based on the retraining and relocation of displaced workers. In addition, Sweden's government assisted the country's economic development indirectly through its industrial and tax policies. The government has invested public funds in research and development to encourage innovation in technology and other fields. In addition, the Cabinet has devalued the krona periodically in an effort to reduce the cost of Swedish exports and thus make them more competitive abroad.

Service industries provide 70 percent of Sweden's jobs and make up 70 percent of the total value of Sweden's economic production. Service industries are economic activities that produce services, not goods. They include such activities as education, government administration, health care, and trade. Banking, communication, entertainment and recreation industries, as well as transportation, are also service industries.

Manufacturing industries are scattered throughout central Sweden and western Skane, and along the coast. The iron and steel industry produces high-quality steel, which is used for such products as ball bearings, stainless steel goods for the home, precision tools, and watch springs. Steel is widely used in the engineering industry, which accounts for over a third of Sweden's industrial production and for two-fifths of the country's exports.

Important Swedish engineering products include agricultural machinery, aircraft, automobiles, and ships. Linkoping is the chief center of the aircraft industry, and Trollhattan has aircraft engine and diesel motor plants. Stockholm, Goteborg, and Linkoping have major automobile plants. Nearly half the automobiles made in Sweden are exported to the United States. Volvo and SAAB are leading Swedish carmakers. The main shipbuilding centers are Goteborg and Malmo. The electrical engineering industry makes equipment for power supplies and communications, and telephones are an important export.

The Swedish chemical industry imports most of its raw materials. The chief products include explosives, fertilizers, plastics, and safety matches. Safety matches were invented in Sweden in 1844, and the country is still one of the world's leading producers.

Agriculture. Farmland covers only about 10 per cent of Sweden. A region called Skane, in the extreme south, has a good climate and is the most fertile area. Other agricultural areas lie in the south and around the lakes in central Sweden. However, much of northern Sweden is too cold and infertile for farming. Less than 1 per cent of the Inner Northland region is cultivated. About two-thirds of the farms in Sweden are less than 50 acres (20 hectares) in size. Nearly all Swedish farmers own their own land.

Dairy farming and livestock raising are the main sources of income for Swedish farmers. Milk, beef, and pork are the leading farm products. The chief crops include barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, and wheat. Almost all farmers belong to Sweden's agricultural cooperative movement. Cooperatives collect, process, and market farm products (see COOPERATIVE).

Mining. Sweden has some of the richest iron ore deposits in the world. Most of Sweden's iron ore is near Kiruna in Lapland. The Lapland mines have some of the world's best high-grade ores. Most of the Lapland ore is exported. In summer, the Lapland ore is shipped from the port of Lulea, on the Gulf of Bothnia. In winter, Lulea's harbor is icebound, and the ore must be carried across the mountains to the ice-free port of Narvik in Norway. The Swedish iron and steel industry gets most of its ore from the Lapland mines. The Skelleftea region in northern Sweden has copper, gold, lead, and silver.

Forestry and fishing. Forests cover more than half of Sweden, and about a fifth of the nation's exports are lumber or products made from wood. The main lumber regions are in the north and north-central sections, where the most important trees include birch, pine, and spruce. Almost all lumber is carried to sawmills by truck and railroad. Then, it is processed into many products for domestic use and export. Forestry is less important in southern Sweden, even though oak, beech, and other trees cover large areas.

Cod and herring are the most important fish caught in Swedish waters. Other fish caught in Sweden include mackerel and salmon. Leading fishing ports are located along the western coast, from Bohuslan region in the north to Halland region in the south.

Foreign trade. The value of Sweden's exports is greater than the value of its imports. Sweden exports large amounts of paper products and imports almost none. However, the country imports much larger amounts of petroleum and farm products than it exports. Sweden both exports and imports various types of transportation equipment, electrical machinery, chemicals, and other goods.

Sweden's most important trading partners include Britain, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, and the United States. Sweden belongs to the European Union, an economic organization of European nations.

Transportation. Sweden has a good railroad network, most of which is owned by the government. Ferries connect Swedish railroads with those in Denmark and Germany. Sweden has a network of good roads and highways, and trucks carry almost as much freight as the railroads do. Almost all Swedish families own an automobile.

Stockholm has an international airport at nearby Arlanda. Other important airports serve Goteborg and Malmo. Ships carry goods between coastal towns. Sweden's most important port is Goteborg. Other port cities located in Sweden include Stockholm, Malmo, and Helsingborg.

Communication. Sweden has about 115 daily newspapers. The largest newspapers are Aftonbladet, Dagens Nyheter, and Expressen, all published in Stockholm. Most of Sweden's newspapers are privately owned. Freedom of the press is guaranteed by law in Sweden, and government censorship is forbidden even in wartime.

The Swedish Broadcasting Corporation, run partly by the government, operates two television networks and several radio networks. Sweden also has some private radio stations. The government does not permit advertising on radio or television. Almost all Swedish families own at least one television set and radio. Sweden's telephone and telegraph services are operated by the government.

History

Early times. Sweden was one of the last regions to lose the ice that covered most of Europe thousands of years ago. The ice had melted from the southern tip of Sweden by about 8000 B.C., and groups of people that hunted and fished began to move from south of the Baltic Sea into this region. People settled farther north as the climate improved.

Beginning about 50 B.C., the people traded with the Roman Empire. They exchanged furs and amber for glass and bronze objects and silver coins. The Romans were the first people to make written records about the Swedes. About A.D. 100, the Roman historian Tacitus wrote about the Svear, a Scandinavian people. Sverige (Sweden) means land of the Svear.

The Swedish Vikings. Beginning about A.D. 800, Scandinavian adventurers called Vikings sailed to many parts of the world. They acquired wealth by trade and conquest. Most of the Norwegian and Danish Vikings sailed westward. The Swedish Vikings went eastward across Russia, as far as the Black and Caspian seas. The Swedes traded slaves and furs for gold, silver, and luxury goods. The Viking expeditions lasted until the 1000's. Much of Sweden's trade with the east then fell to German merchants, who settled in the town of Visby on the island of Gotland. For more information, see VIKINGS (The Swedish Vikings); RUSSIA (Early days).

The early kingdom. Christianity was first preached in Sweden in A.D. 829 by Saint Anskar, a Frankish monk. His missionary work began a struggle between Christianity and paganism that lasted about 200 years. The first Christian king of Sweden was Olof Skotkonung, who ruled from the late 900's until the early 1000's. Christianity brought about great changes in Sweden. The clergy founded schools, encouraged the arts, and set down Sweden's laws in writing.

By the 1000's, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway had become separate kingdoms. Sweden began to develop along partly feudal lines (see FEUDALISM). There were three social classes--the clergy, the nobles, and the peasants. Above them was the king, who was elected by the provincial lawmaking assemblies. In 1249, Sweden conquered much of Finland.

Union with Norway and Denmark. During the 1200's and 1300's, constant struggles took place between the rulers of Sweden and the nobles. In 1388, to oppose the growing German influence in Sweden's affairs, the nobles turned for help to Queen Margaret of Denmark and Norway. The Germans were defeated in 1389, and the three Scandinavian countries were united under Margaret in 1397. A treaty called the Union of Kalmar laid down the conditions of the union between the three countries. This treaty provided for a common foreign policy, but separate national councils and the continuation of existing laws in each country. Except for a few short periods of separation, the union lasted more than 100 years.

Under the influence of German merchants, Sweden's economy developed considerably during the 1200's and early 1300's. These merchants developed Sweden's mineral resources and controlled Swedish trade. Plague wiped out a large part of Sweden's population in 1350 and caused an economic decline. The German merchants, with their powerful association called the Hanseatic League, increased their control of Swedish trade (see HANSEATIC LEAGUE).

During the late 1400's, the Riksdag (parliament) developed into a lawmaking and tax-raising body. Members of a new social class, the merchants, joined the other three classes as members of the Riksdag.

The beginnings of modern Sweden. The union with Norway and Denmark continued throughout most of the 1400's. But many struggles took place between supporters and opponents of the union. Gustavus Vasa, a Swedish noble, finally broke away from the union in 1523 after defeating the Danes. He became King Gustavus I of independent Sweden that year. Norway remained under Danish rule.

Gustavus encouraged the followers of Martin Luther, the German religious reformer, to spread their ideas. About 1540, the Lutheran religion became the state religion of Sweden. Gustavus also increased the power of the throne and laid the foundations of the modern Swedish state. He centralized the administration, dealt harshly with revolts, built an efficient army, and encouraged trade and industry. See GUSTAVUS I.

The age of expansion. Beginning in the late 1500's, the Swedes fought a series of wars to gain control of the lands surrounding the Baltic Sea. King Gustavus Adolphus, also known as Gustav II Adolf, won many victories for Sweden and the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War (see THIRTY YEARS' WAR). Sweden gained new possessions in Europe, and these gains led to continual wars against Denmark, Poland, and Russia. Between 1617 and 1648, war victories over Russia, Poland, and Denmark gave Sweden territories on both sides of the Baltic Sea, as well as some areas in what are now Germany and Poland. In 1658, under the Treaty of Roskilde, the Swedes forced the Danes to give up their provinces on the Swedish mainland.

Charles XII, who ruled from 1697 to 1718, won many victories during the first half of his reign, making Sweden one of the greatest powers in Europe for a time. In 1709, however, the Swedes were defeated by Czar Peter the Great of Russia in the battle of Poltava. During the next few years, Sweden was forced to give up most of its European possessions, including its Baltic provinces and Bremen and Verden in Germany. See CHARLES (XII).

The Age of Liberty. Charles XII died in 1718. Before agreeing to elect a new king, the Riksdag insisted that any monarch chosen should accept a new constitution. This constitution, which was passed in 1720, transferred many of the crown's powers to the Riksdag. The period of parliamentary government that followed was called the Age of Liberty, and lasted until 1772. That year, an unsuccessful war in Germany and serious economic and political troubles at home resulted in a peaceful revolution that reestablished the power of the king.

The Napoleonic Wars. Because of its growing trade with Britain, Sweden became involved in wars against the French Emperor Napoleon in the early 1800's. As a result of these wars, Sweden lost Finland to Russia, but gained Norway from Denmark. In 1809, Sweden adopted a new constitution. In 1818, Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, a French soldier who had become regent (acting ruler) of Sweden during the Napoleonic Wars, was elected king of Sweden as Charles XIV. Sweden's present royal family is descended from him.

Industrial growth. Great economic and social changes occurred during the 1800's. More land was brought into use for farming. But food was often in short supply because of a great increase in the population. There were not enough jobs, and nearly 450,000 people left Sweden between 1867 and 1886. Most of them went to the United States and settled mainly in the Midwest.

Emigration decreased after Sweden developed manufacturing, mining, and forest industries. Engineers built many railroads in the 1860's and 1870's, and Sweden's lumber resources were put into use. In 1867, Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, invented dynamite, which speeded the growth of mining. Engineering industries based on iron and steel were developed. By 1900, Sweden had become an important industrial nation.

The 1800's and early 1900's was also a period of sweeping political and social reform in Sweden. Workers formed trade unions and demanded higher wages, shorter workdays, and workers' compensation for industrial accidents. Many strikes broke out as workers demanded improved work conditions. Workers also sought the right to vote--a privilege previously granted only to those with a certain level of income. The Social Democratic Party was founded in 1889 on the strength of the Swedish labor movement.

The Swedish government responded to these movements by passing a series of laws. An 1881 law limited the employment of children in factories, a 1901 law created workers' compensation insurance, and a 1913 law authorized a fund for workers' old age pensions. In 1909, Sweden provided for proportional representation in parliament and granted all adult males the right to vote for members of one chamber of the Riksdag.

In 1905, Norway broke away from Sweden. The Norwegians elected a king, and Sweden recognized Norway's independence. See NORWAY (Independence).

Sweden was neutral during World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945). After Germany conquered Norway in 1940, Sweden let German troops pass through on their way to Norway. Many Swedes opposed this policy, and Sweden stopped it in 1943.

Recent developments. From the end of World War II through the 1960's, Sweden experienced strong growth and rapid change in its economy. The economy continued to expand and diversify, with more and more workers taking jobs in the commerce, transportation, and service industries. The number of employees in agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and construction has declined proportionately.

Sweden's high standard of living has been spread to all income groups by means of a government welfare system that has fully developed since World War II. Critics of the system say it makes people so secure that they become bored. Critics also say the system has helped cause high taxation and inflation. But most Swedes support the system.

A new constitution took effect in Sweden in 1975. It greatly reduced the power of the king, and it placed power in the hands of the country's parliament and Cabinet. A tragedy struck Sweden in 1986, when Prime Minister Olof Palme was shot and killed by an assassin.

The Social Democratic Party has controlled Sweden's government most of the time since 1932. Various nonsocialist coalitions governed the country from 1976 to 1982. A nonsocialist coalition also controlled the government from 1991 to 1994, when the Social Democrats returned to power.

Sweden became a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), a European economic organization, in 1960. On Jan. 1, 1995, it left EFTA and joined the European Union (EU), a larger economic organization.

Sweden remains one of the world's most prosperous nations. But the country faces such economic problems as a large budget deficit and periods of slow economic growth.
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Roland Camilleri

Moderator

Sydney , Australia.