Latin America .

ROLCAM · Posted: Wed Sep 26, 2007 1:20 pm Post subject: Latin America .

Latin America is a large region that covers all the territory in the Western Hemisphere south of the United States. It consists of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the islands of the West Indies. The region is divided into 33 independent countries and 13 other political units. Brazil is by far the largest country in Latin America both in area and in population. It occupies more than 40 percent of the region's land area and has about a third of its people.

During the late 1400's, people from southern Europe, especially Spain and Portugal, began to settle in Latin America. These people brought their own languages, religious beliefs, and customs with them. Today, the majority of Latin Americans speak Spanish, Portuguese, or French, each of which developed from Latin. For this reason, the region is called Latin America. English or Dutch is the official language in several areas of the region that were colonized by England or the Netherlands. Scholars disagree about whether such areas should be considered part of Latin America. This article includes these areas in its discussion of the region (see the table Independent countries of Latin America).

Before the first Europeans settled in Latin America, the region had long been inhabited by American Indians. Soon after the Europeans arrived, they began to bring in many black Africans as slaves, especially to the West Indies and some mainland coastal areas. Over the centuries, numerous whites, Indians, and blacks intermarried. Today, most Latin Americans are of mixed ancestry. They are chiefly of Indian and white descent or of black and white descent. Most other Latin Americans are of unmixed Indian, black, or white ancestry.

The people of Latin America share many traditions and values that spring from their common colonial heritage. However, there are great local differences in the way of life throughout Latin America. Such differences largely reflect various combinations of the region's African, American Indian, and European cultural heritage. Differences in the way of life also arise from differences in geography and in economic development from one part of Latin America to another.

Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator in the service of Spain, reached Latin America in 1492. By that time, Indians had been living in the region for thousands of years. Such Indian groups as the Aztec, Inca, and Maya had developed highly advanced civilizations. The Europeans who followed Columbus to Latin America quickly conquered most of the Indians and established colonies. European rule of Latin America lasted about 300 years.

During the early 1800's, many Latin American colonies gained their independence and became republics. However, the leaders of the new republics lacked the experience necessary to deal with serious social and economic problems. As a result, the new republics did not work as well as many people had hoped. In some Latin American countries, military dictators seized control of the government. Other nations were ruled by a few powerful families who used their positions to increase their personal wealth. Antigovernment protests and violent revolutions occurred frequently throughout Latin America. During the 1900's, civilian and military leaders tried to bring political stability to the region. But in the process, many of these leaders restricted the civil rights of the Latin American people.

Until the mid-1900's, the majority of Latin Americans lived in rural areas. Today, most of the people live in urban areas. The hardships of rural life as well as the belief that expanded job opportunities exist in urban areas have led millions of rural people to seek work in the cities. However, many of these people are uneducated and unskilled. As a result, they cannot find jobs and so continue to live in wretched poverty. The widespread poverty, overpopulation, and patterns of economic change all help create political and social unrest in much of Latin America today.

This article discusses the people, way of life, arts, and history of Latin America. To understand the region more thoroughly, see the World Book articles on each of the independent countries and other political units in Latin America. See also NORTH AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICA, SOUTH AMERICA, and WEST INDIES.

LATIN AMERICA/People

Population. Latin America has a population of about 506 million. The population of the region has almost quadrupled since 1940. The increase in population is due to a high birth rate and improvements in health care, which have led to a decline in Latin America's death rate. About a third of all Latin Americans are under 15 years old.

Latin America covers about 8 million square miles (21 million square kilometers). If the population were evenly distributed throughout the region, there would be only about 64 people per square mile (25 per square kilometer). However, the population is far from evenly distributed. Vast areas of the interior of South and Central America have few or no people. Much of the interior is covered by tropical rain forests. Some dry grasslands, desert areas, and high mountain regions of Latin America are also thinly settled. Most of the people live near seacoasts or rivers or in highland areas that have good farmland.

Some parts of Latin America are extremely crowded. Barbados, Puerto Rico, and a number of other islands in the West Indies rank among the most densely populated places in the world. Other sections of Latin America that are heavily populated include southeastern Brazil and much of Brazil's coast; east-central Argentina; central Mexico; and the northern regions of Colombia and Venezuela.

Ancestry. Latin America has a varied population in terms of ancestry. The main population groups are (1) Indians, (2) whites, (3) blacks, and (4) people of mixed ancestry.

Most Latin American countries have a class system based largely on ancestry. The relatively small upper class consists chiefly of whites. People of mixed ancestry make up most of the middle class. The large lower class consists mainly of Indians or blacks. However, social position is not decided only on the basis of ancestry. Being of Indian, black, or mixed descent does not necessarily restrict a person to low social status. In Brazil and the West Indies, for example, many black people have become prominent in the arts, business, politics, or science. In Mexico, having Indian ancestry is a point of pride for people of all walks of life. On the other hand, being white does not guarantee high social position. White people can be found in all classes. However, there are higher percentages of white people among the lower classes in countries that have small Indian or black populations.

Indians lived in Latin America long before the first white settlers arrived in the late 1400's. The Indians descended from people who migrated to North America from Asia thousands of years ago. The Aztec, Inca, Maya, and other Indian cultures developed advanced civilizations.

The whites soon conquered most of the Indians and forced them to work in mines or on plantations. Millions of Indians died of harsh treatment, in warfare, or of diseases brought by the whites. In some areas of Latin America, the Indian population almost completely disappeared. To survive, many Indians moved to highland areas or remote forest regions. Today, Indians make up a large percentage of the population in Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Peru.

Whites. Most white Latin Americans are of European descent. At first, nearly all the region's white settlers came from Spain or Portugal. But since the early 1800's, Latin America has attracted numerous immigrants from other European nations. Many people from Britain, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland have settled in Latin America. Today, most of the people of Argentina, Costa Rica, and Uruguay are whites. Brazil and Chile also have large white populations.

Blacks were brought from Africa to Latin America as slaves from the 1500's to the 1800's. Europeans brought millions of black people to work on plantations in the West Indies and in coastal areas on the mainland of Central and South America. Today, most of the people of Barbados, Haiti, and Jamaica are blacks. Many other parts of the West Indies--as well as some tropical lowland areas of Central and South America--also have large numbers of blacks.

People of mixed ancestry. Through the centuries, many whites, blacks, and Indians in Latin America have intermarried. As a result, most Latin Americans are of mixed ancestry. The largest groups are mestizos (people of mixed Indian and white descent) and mulattoes (people of mixed black and white descent). Mestizos make up a majority of the population in El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, and Venezuela. Mulattoes are numerous in Brazil, Panama, and the West Indies.

Languages. Most Latin Americans speak the language of the European country that colonized their nation. Nearly two-thirds of the people in Latin America speak Spanish. It is the official language of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and most countries in Central and South America. About a third of all Latin Americans speak Portuguese, the official language of Brazil. French is the official language of Haiti, and Dutch is the official language of Suriname. English is the official language of Belize, Guyana, and other West Indian nations formerly ruled by Britain. Many Latin Americans speak a dialect of their country's official language or a mixture of languages.

Many Indians in Latin America speak their traditional languages. In Paraguay, an Indian tongue called Guarani is an official language along with Spanish. Peru's chief Indian tongue, Quechua, is also an official language along with Spanish. Bolivia has three official languages--Spanish, Quechua, and another Indian language called Aymara.

LATIN AMERICA/Way of life

Life styles in urban areas of Latin America contrast sharply with those in rural areas. City life moves at a fast pace. Large cities are the centers of political, economic, and intellectual life. They offer a variety of exciting cultural and recreational activities. Although a great many urban dwellers are poor, a growing number of city people enjoy a good standard of living.

Although many peasants continue to live and work on large traditional estates or small personal farms, rural life in Latin America is also changing rapidly. Modern agricultural technologies have been introduced to large parts of the region, and these technologies have encouraged the growth of modern middle-sized farms.

City life. In 1940, about 65 percent of the people of Latin America lived in rural areas. Today, about 70 percent live in urban areas. Four Latin American cities and their suburbs rank among the largest urban centers in the world. They are Mexico City; Sao Paulo, Brazil; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and Buenos Aires, Argentina.

In many ways, large cities in Latin America resemble those in the United States and Canada. Steel and glass skyscrapers rise in busy commercial and financial districts. Tall apartment buildings line broad boulevards. Elegant shops, restaurants, bars, and nightclubs attract large numbers of customers. Cars and trucks jam wide expressways at rush hours. Modern bus and subway systems carry millions of people to and from work.

In the old sections of many Latin American cities, Spanish-style buildings stand crowded together along narrow cobblestone streets. The buildings are made of stone or adobe, and many have decorative iron grillwork over the windows. Government agencies have purchased many such buildings and restored them for use as museums.

Wealthy city dwellers in Latin America include bankers, industrialists, political and military leaders, and owners of large agricultural enterprises who prefer to live in the city. These people make up only a small percentage of the population, but they largely control the economic and political systems in most countries. The rich live in luxurious city apartments or in suburban mansions with swimming pools. Many wealthy people travel widely and send their children to universities in the United States.

All large Latin American cities have a growing middle class. It consists of professional people, government employees, skilled office and factory workers, and owners of small businesses. Most middle-class families live in comfortable apartments or small single-family houses in the suburbs. They can afford a car, nice clothes, and regular vacations.

Latin America's big cities, like large cities in many other parts of the world, face such serious problems as air and water pollution, overcrowding, housing shortages, and high crime rates. Poverty and unemployment are widespread in Latin American cities. Millions of poor rural people have moved to the cities to look for jobs. Many of these people cannot find work because they lack the necessary skills and education. Most of those who have jobs earn a low income.

Most poor city dwellers live in the slums that surround many of Latin America's large cities. In some cities, more than a fourth of the people live in slums. Families live crowded together in shacks made of cardboard, wood, and tin on land they do not own. Most slums lack electricity, running water, and sewers. Millions of slum children have been abandoned by their parents because they cannot feed or clothe them. These homeless children wander the streets and must beg, steal, or take odd jobs to survive.

A number of Latin American governments have torn down slums and replaced them with low-cost public housing. But in many cities, the construction cannot keep up with the rapidly increasing urban population. Many governments are trying to encourage industrial growth in smaller cities to ease the pressure on large urban areas. Public youth centers have taken in many abandoned children. But slums, overcrowding, and poverty remain serious problems.

Rural life. About 30 percent of all Latin Americans live in rural areas. The majority of them are poor farmers, often called campesinos in Spanish. Most campesinos in the West Indies and tropical coastal areas of the mainland are blacks. They work on plantations that grow bananas, sugar cane, or cotton. Most campesinos who live inland on the mainland are mestizos. Some work on highland coffee plantations or migrate to coastal areas to work on large commercial farms. At home, most rent or own small plots on which they raise crops and livestock to feed their families. They often cannot afford machinery and so use hand tools to work their land.

Many campesinos live in small villages. Early each morning, they walk or ride buses or trucks from their village homes to the fields. Some villages consist of only a few houses crowded together. Larger settlements have a church, a few shops, and government buildings around a public square called a plaza. People gather in the plaza for socializing, entertainment, and ceremonies. Many villages also have an open-air market, where people gather on the weekend to buy or sell food or handmade goods and to exchange news.

Most rural houses in Latin America have one or two rooms. In tropical areas, the houses may have walls of wood or dried mud and sticks, dirt floors, and thatch or tin roofs. In mountain villages, most houses are built of stone or adobe and have red tile roofs. On their estates, wealthy landowners live in luxurious mansions. However, many landowners hire managers to run their farms and spend most of their time in cities.

In general, rural people have a much lower standard of living than do city people. Many rural families do not have such conveniences as electricity, indoor plumbing, or a telephone. In addition, many villages lack adequate schools and medical facilities.

The uneven distribution of wealth in Latin America's rural areas has led to serious social and economic problems. In a majority of countries, a small number of wealthy people, together with owners of modern middle-sized farms, own nearly all the choice farmland. Most campesinos own no land. Those who own or can rent small plots scratch out a living from the poor soil. Despairing of getting ahead in the country, many campesinos have flocked to the cities to seek jobs.

Since the mid-1900's, many Latin American governments have tried to improve rural life so that people will not move to already crowded cities. Some governments have established land reform programs that buy large estates and divide them into small plots for distribution to poor farmers. Many governments have built roads and extended electricity and other modern conveniences to thousands of towns and villages. The improved roads have opened up some uninhabited areas to settlers. Since the 1960's, many families have moved from economically depressed rural areas to new settlements. However, a number of the settlements failed because of the high cost of making the poor soil more productive.

Family life has always been extremely important in Latin American culture. Strong feelings of loyalty and cooperation bind together not only parents and children but also grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Such feelings are often shared with friends and business associates. This extended family provides its members with financial help, security, and social life.

The typical Latin American household consists of parents, children, and grandparents. Some households also include other family members. Generally, the man who contributes most to the family's economic support acts as head of the household. However, women make most household decisions. Children learn obedience toward their parents, and both children and adults are expected to show respect for their elders.

Traditionally, only Latin American men were expected to have jobs outside the home. Women remained at home to care for their families. Many women, especially in rural areas, still follow this tradition. Since the mid-1900's, however, increasing educational and career opportunities have become available to women. As a result, a growing number of women, particularly in urban areas, now work outside the home. By the early 1960's, women in all Latin American countries had gained the right to vote. Some women take an active role in politics, and women have held high government posts in several Latin American countries.

Among Indians and blacks in Latin America, feelings of loyalty and kinship typically extend beyond the family to the community. Most Indians and blacks are extremely proud of their ethnic heritage. Many live in small communities and work for common goals instead of personal enrichment. Many Indians and blacks take more pride in being a member of their ethnic group or tribe than in being a citizen of their country.

Clothing. Clothing styles in Latin America vary from region to region, depending on climate and custom. Many city people wear clothing like that worn in the United States and Canada. But many villagers prefer traditional clothing styles. On holidays and other special occasions, many Latin Americans wear traditional costumes, which commonly feature bright colors and bold patterns.

Rural Latin Americans who live in tropical climates prefer lightweight cotton clothing. Men usually wear loose-fitting shirts. Most women dress in long skirts and blouses. People in mountain villages need heavier clothing for protection against the cold. Both men and women wear ponchos (blankets with a slit in the middle for the head). Women also dress in full skirts and long-sleeved blouses. They commonly drape brightly colored shawls around their shoulders. In the highlands, men wear coarse handwoven shirts and baggy pants. Farmers wear straw or felt hats for protection against the sun while working in the fields. Rural people generally go barefoot or wear sandals, many of which have soles made from old automobile tires.

Clothing styles in some parts of Latin America are highly distinctive. For example, Indian women who live in the highlands of Bolivia wear black derbies. The gauchos (cowboys) of Argentina and Uruguay dress in ponchos, baggy trousers tucked into low boots, and wide-brimmed hats.

Many Indian groups wear brightly colored clothing with traditional patterns. Among such groups, each village has its own special colors and designs, which have been used for hundreds of years. Numerous Indian women wear braided belts around their waists. They often use the belts as headbands to hold in place bundles that they carry on their heads.

Food and drink. Grain is the chief food of most Latin Americans. Many people in Mexico and Central America serve tortillas (flat bread made from corn or wheat flour) at most meals. Beans and rice form a major part of the diet of most West Indians. People who live in the mountainous areas of South America commonly eat potatoes. People in tropical areas eat a starchy root called cassava. In Argentina and Uruguay, people eat many foods made from wheat.

Most Latin Americans eat little meat because they cannot afford it. But people eat a great deal of beef in the cattle-raising countries of Argentina and Uruguay. People who live along rivers or near the oceans commonly eat fish and shellfish. Many Latin American dishes are highly seasoned with onions and hot peppers. In tropical areas, the people enjoy such fruits as bananas, mangoes, oranges, and pineapples. Latin Americans drink coffee, a variety of fruit juices, and a kind of tea called mate. Favorite alcoholic beverages include beer, rum, wine, and aguardiente, a brandylike drink made from sugar cane.

Middle- and upper-class Latin Americans enjoy a much wider choice of food than poor people can afford. They regularly eat a variety of meats as well as other fresh and processed foods. The diet of most poor people in Latin America consists mainly of starchy foods and lacks important nutritional elements. Many poor Latin Americans in rural areas and urban slums suffer from malnutrition.

Recreation. Latin Americans enjoy a wide variety of outdoor activities. Soccer is the region's most popular sport. Many boys and girls begin playing soccer as soon as they can walk. Hundreds of thousands of spectators jam huge stadiums throughout Latin America to watch professional soccer games. Soccer stars have become national heroes. The Brazilian star Pele won fame as the world's greatest soccer player in the 1960's.

Baseball is especially popular in parts of the West Indies and in mainland countries that border the Caribbean Sea. A number of Latin Americans have become stars on professional baseball teams in the United States and Canada. Cricket is popular in the Bahamas, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. Bullfights draw large crowds in Colombia, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela. Other popular sports include automobile racing, basketball, horse racing, and volleyball.

In coastal areas, large crowds regularly flock to beaches on weekends. Favorite activities include boating, fishing, swimming, surfing, and water-skiing. Many families take overnight camping trips to national forests. During the winter months, well-to-do people enjoy skiing at beautiful mountain resorts.

Latin Americans take part in a number of other leisure activities. Visiting with family and friends is a major pastime. Many people enjoy listening to the radio or watching television. In cities, popular pastimes include visiting parks and museums and attending plays, concerts, and motion pictures. Large numbers of Latin Americans take part in colorful fiestas (festivals), which are held on national or religious holidays. Many fiestas feature colorful parades with richly decorated floats, costumed street dancers, lively musical performances, games, and fireworks.

Religion. Most Latin Americans are Christians. The great majority are Roman Catholics, but a growing number belong to Protestant churches. The laws of all Latin American countries guarantee freedom of worship, though some countries officially support the Roman Catholic Church. Other religious groups in Latin America include Buddhists, Hindus, and Jews. Some Indian and black peoples worship the gods of their own cultures.

Roman Catholicism. The early Spanish and Portuguese explorers brought the Roman Catholic religion to much of Latin America and converted many Indians to Catholicism. Today, about 80 percent of the people belong to the Roman Catholic Church. However, the number of Catholics who actively practice their religion varies from country to country. Many Latin Americans of Indian or black African ancestry combine Catholic religious practices with spiritual beliefs of their own traditions.

In some Latin American countries, the Roman Catholic Church greatly influences the daily lives of the people. Church officials represent a wide range of political opinion and participate in all levels of government. They take an active role on zoning and planning boards and in human welfare agencies. In addition to performing their religious duties, many neighborhood and village priests work for social reforms on behalf of the poor in their districts.

During European rule, the Roman Catholic Church exercised great political power throughout Latin America. The Catholic Church also dominated education and owned huge estates and other property. During the early 1800's, many Latin American colonies won their freedom. Some members of the clergy supported the independence movement. However, many others opposed it. After independence, many Latin American governments took steps to decrease the Catholic Church's power. They seized much of its property and limited or took away its control of education, hospitals, cemeteries, and public charities.

During the early 1900's, the Catholic Church became closely linked to military leaders and wealthy landowners who controlled many Latin American governments. Since the late 1960's, however, the church has become increasingly active in the fight for civil and human rights and social justice. Many Catholic officials have sharply criticized Latin American governments for failing to provide adequate services for the poor. This criticism has led to serious clashes between religious and political leaders in a number of countries. See ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH (In Latin America).

Protestantism. Protestants make up about 5 percent of Latin America's overall population, though they comprise a greater percentage in some countries than in others. Latin American Protestants include Baptists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, and Methodists. Many Protestants live on West Indian islands formerly ruled by Britain and in the Netherlands Antilles.

Since the late 1960's, millions of Latin Americans have joined a variety of churches based on Pentecostalism. Pentecostalism is an emotional form of worship that emphasizes prayer (see PENTECOSTAL CHURCHES). Most new members of Pentecostal churches are former Catholics who had quit practicing that religion. Many of them disagreed with the Catholic Church's active involvement in social reform movements. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has also won many converts. It and the Pentecostal churches are the fastest-growing religious groups in Latin America.

Education in Latin America has improved greatly since 1960. Larger percentages of Latin Americans than ever are attending elementary schools, high schools, and colleges. In many countries, the literacy rate (percentage of people aged 15 or older who can read and write) has increased enormously. In such nations as Argentina, Chile, Cuba, and Uruguay, the literacy rate is more than 90 percent. Many governments have set up programs to teach uneducated adults to read and write. In spite of the progress in education, serious problems remain. In such countries as Guatemala and Haiti, the literacy rate is less than 60 percent. Throughout Latin America, educational levels are generally lower in rural areas than they are in the cities.

Nearly all Latin American nations require children to complete elementary school. But many students, particularly in rural areas and urban slums, cannot fulfill this requirement because of a shortage of schools, educational materials, and qualified teachers. Numerous other students must leave school after a few years to look for work and help support their families. All Latin American governments have built schools and sponsored programs to extend education to more people. However, the population is growing faster than schools can be built or teachers trained. In addition, the costs of education are constantly increasing.

In many Latin American countries, students can receive a free public education from kindergarten through college. However, large numbers of students, especially from middle- and upper-class families, go to private schools, which charge tuition. The private schools also receive government funds. The Catholic Church operates many private schools in Latin America. For many years, private schools provided a better education than did public schools. But increased financial support has enabled many public schools to offer an education at least equal to that of private schools.

Latin America has a number of excellent public and private colleges and universities. Four of the universities date from the 1500's. Santo Domingo University in the Dominican Republic was founded in 1538. It is the oldest institution of higher learning in the Western Hemisphere. The National University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru, and the National Autonomous University of Mexico in Mexico City date from 1551. Saint Thomas University in Bogota, Colombia, dates from 1580.

Enrollment in Latin America's colleges and universities has increased greatly since the 1960's. In several nations, the number of qualified high school graduates who want to attend public universities exceeds the number that these schools can enroll. Many Latin American countries have a shortage of skilled workers, scientists, teachers, and other professionals. To meet the need for such workers, many nations have built technical schools that prepare young people for careers in agriculture, business, and engineering.

Latin America has some fine public and school libraries. For information about libraries in Latin America, see LIBRARY (Libraries in Latin America).

LATIN AMERICA/The arts

The artistic traditions of Latin America date back thou-sands of years to the region's ancient Indian cultures. The ruins of magnificent temples and other structures built by advanced Indian civilizations still stand in such countries as Mexico, Peru, and Guatemala. The Indians also produced beautiful textiles, jewelry, pottery, and other handicraft items. When Spanish and Portuguese colonists began arriving in Latin America during the late 1400's, they brought their European artistic traditions with them. European styles dominated the region's arts for hundreds of years. After the colonists imported black slaves, African traditions influenced such arts as popular music and dancing. During the 1800's and 1900's, various Latin American arts began to develop a strong national character, rather than reflect European styles.

Architecture. Highly developed Indian civilizations constructed enormous buildings and impressive cities before the first Europeans reached Latin America. The greatest Indian architects were the Aztec and Toltec in Mexico, the Maya in Mexico and Central America, and the Inca in the Andes Mountains of western South America. The outstanding Aztec, Maya, and Toltec structures were huge stone pyramids topped by temples. Inca architects designed cities that clung to mountainsides. The stones for Inca buildings were cut so precisely that they fit together without cement. See ARCHITECTURE (Pre-Columbian architecture).

The first major buildings constructed by Europeans in Latin America had a religious or governmental purpose. Some of the finest structures were huge cathedrals and sprawling monasteries that included a church, chapels, living quarters, and a courtyard surrounded by high, thick stone walls. Beginning in the late 1600's, many cathedrals, palaces, and mansions were built in the baroque style of architecture. This style featured elaborately carved columns, ornate sculptures, and lavish use of colored tile, gold, and silver.

Modern Latin American architecture combines simple geometric forms with bold decorations and curving shapes inspired by the region's Indian and baroque heritage. Many architects cover all or part of their buildings with stunning paintings or mosaics (designs or pictures made of pieces of stone or other material). Such buildings can be found at the National Autonomous University of Mexico in Mexico City and at the Central University of Venezuela in Caracas. The great Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer created strikingly modern designs for buildings in Brasilia, the capital of Brazil.

Literature. Latin American literature includes works by writers from the Spanish-speaking countries and Puerto Rico and from Portuguese-speaking Brazil. For a discussion of the region's rich literary tradition, see LATIN-AMERICAN LITERATURE.

Painting. Precolonial Latin American painting includes brilliantly colored murals by Indian artists. Some of these murals decorate temples and feature lifelike figures taking part in battles and ceremonies. Some Indian groups also painted pottery and sculptures.

During colonial times, many Latin American painters imitated European styles. Most artists painted pictures with religious themes for churches and cathedrals. The leading centers of painting during the colonial period included Mexico City; Quito, Ecuador; and Cusco, Peru.

About 1900, Latin American artists began to develop painting styles that were distinctly Latin American. Many of them adopted the vivid colors and bold designs that stemmed from the region's Indian heritage. Such Mexican artists as Jose Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and David Siqueiros became famous for their gigantic murals. The murals portray scenes from Mexican history, especially the struggle for independence and Mexico's 1910 revolution. The Brazilian painter Candido Portinari used modern abstract styles to create powerful pictures of everyday life in Brazil. In Haiti, an outstanding group of self-taught artists, including Hector Hyppolite and Philome Obin, has produced imaginative scenes of local life and folklore.

Sculpture. Before the Europeans arrived, Latin American Indians created many beautiful sculptures, ranging from masks and statuettes to huge, elaborately carved panels and monuments. Indian sculptors carved a large number of their works from stone, but they also used clay, jade, gold, and wood. Many of their sculptures depicted gods and religious symbols and were used to decorate temples and religious centers. See SCULPTURE (Indian sculpture of the Americas).

Early colonial sculpture consisted mainly of architectural decoration on churches. Much of the carving was in the plateresque style, a form of stone design that resembled the delicate work of plateros (silversmiths). The Brazilian sculptor Antonio Francisco Lisboa, also known as Aleijadinho, created some of the finest works of the late 1700's and early 1800's. He carved magnificent religious figures from wood and stone for churches in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais.

Since the mid-1800's, much Latin American sculpture has reflected a strong national pride and a growing interest in the region's Indian heritage. Many sculptors have produced impressive monuments to heroes of Latin America's revolutions and wars of independence.

Music. Latin Americans enjoy many kinds of music. Street performances of live music are common in the region. Performances of traditional Indian and black music and Western classical music draw large crowds. Rock music is also popular among young Latin Americans.

Indian music of Latin America dates from precolonial times. It played a major part in most Indian ceremonies and remains important in areas that have a large Indian population. European settlers introduced Western musical forms and instruments into Latin America. Mestizo music combines Indian tunes with lively Spanish strains. Music in the West Indies and coastal mainland areas reflects African traditions introduced by black plantation slaves. Complicated African rhythms can be heard in the calypso music of Trinidad and in the samba and bossa nova styles of Brazil.

In playing traditional Latin American music, musicians use various special instruments. These instruments include wooden and steel drums; the cuatro (a four-stringed guitar); the marimba (an instrument similar to the xylophone); and maracas (rattles made from gourds). Much traditional music also features flutes, harps, horns, violins, and tambourines.

Many large cities in Latin America have symphony orchestras, chamber groups, and opera companies. These organizations perform the work of the great European classical composers. European styles strongly influenced the region's classical music until the 1800's. A number of Latin American composers then began to express their national heritage in their music. During the 1900's, such internationally known composers as Heitor Villa-Lobos of Brazil and Carlos Chavez of Mexico used folk melodies and rhythms as well as traditional instruments in their works. Alberto Ginastera of Argentina emphasized folk music in his early works but gained international recognition for his later experimental operas.

Dancing has long been important in the lives of Latin Americans. Indians and blacks developed dances to accompany religious worship, to celebrate such events as birth and marriage, and to mourn the dead. European immigrants introduced the folk dances of their native countries into Latin America. Dancing continues to play a major role in the religious ceremonies and community celebrations of many Latin Americans. It is also a highly popular form of recreation. In many countries, national dance companies stage colorful productions of traditional folk dances. One of the most famous companies is the Ballet Folklorico of Mexico, which has performed in many parts of the world.

Most Latin American countries have their own traditional dances. Many of these dances include steps from Spanish or Portuguese folk dances. For example, the Spanish zapateado (heel-beating steps) are part of the cueca of Bolivia and Chile; the joropo of Venezuela; and the jarabe tapatio, or Mexican hat dance, of Mexico. In the West Indies, African and Spanish influences were combined in such ballroom dances as the rumba and cha-cha. The rumba, cha-cha, and some other Latin American dances, including the Argentine tango, Brazilian samba, and Cuban conga, are popular outside Latin America.

Handicrafts. Many handcrafted items made by Latin Americans combine artistic beauty with practical use. This type of art is called artes populares (popular arts) and is part of daily life in much of Latin America. Superb craftwork can be found in tools and household items as well as in ornaments and religious objects. Latin Americans have long been famous for their excellent glassware, metalwork, pottery, and textiles.

Most handicrafts are inexpensive. Many craftworkers produce these items in their homes using local materials. For example, Indians of the Andes Mountains weave wool from such animals as alpacas and llamas into beautifully designed ponchos and sweaters. In the West Indies, people make dishes for baking seafood from sea shells and carve coconut shells into serving dishes. In the tropical lowlands of Central America, people make lightweight chairs from sturdy plant fibers.

Many handcrafted items are decorated with such folk art figures as chickens, dogs, and frogs or with Indian religious symbols. The eye of god, an Indian religious symbol, is a popular wall decoration. It consists of colored threads woven in a special pattern around crossed sticks.

LATIN AMERICA/History

This section traces the broad outlines of Latin American history. For the history of a particular country, see the World Book article on that country. See also the articles listed under "Biographies" and "History" in the Related articles at the end of this article.

The first inhabitants of Latin America were American Indians. Most scientists believe that the ancestors of these Indians came to North America from Asia about 15,000 years ago. At that time, a land bridge connected Asia and North America where the Bering Strait now divides Siberia and Alaska. The people from Asia probably crossed the land bridge, following animals they hunted. Their descendants became known as Indians. By about 6000 B.C., Indians had spread throughout much of the Americas to the southern tip of South America.

For thousands of years, the Indians lived in small groups. They traveled continuously in search of animals and wild plants for food. Eventually, some Indians began to farm the land. The Indians were the first people to grow cacao, corn, kidney and Lima beans, peanuts, potatoes, squash, tobacco, and tomatoes. Indians who farmed could remain in one place and produce enough food for many others. They built permanent houses and settled in small villages. As the Indian population increased, some villages grew into towns and cities, and several advanced civilizations developed.

The earliest Indian civilization in the Americas was probably that of the Olmec. The Olmec civilization thrived in what is now eastern Mexico from about 1200 to 400 B.C. The Maya civilization of southern Mexico and northern Central America reached its peak between about A.D. 250 and 900. The Maya produced magnificent architecture, painting, pottery, and sculpture. They developed a calendar and an advanced system of writing. The Maya had great knowledge of astronomy, which helped them predict growing seasons. They also built a vast system of underground irrigation canals.

The Toltec controlled central Mexico from about 900 to 1200. By the early 1400's, the Aztec had replaced the Toltec as the most powerful people in the region. The Aztec civilization flourished until the early 1500's. Both the Toltec and the Aztec constructed gigantic pyramids and other structures, many of which still survive. The Inca ruled a huge empire along the west coast of South America during the 1400's and early 1500's. The Inca were superb architects and farmers. They built an extensive system of roads through the Andes Mountains to connect the distant cities of their empire. Inca farmers cut terraces into steep hillsides and brought water to these plots through irrigation canals.

European discovery and exploration. In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator who was in the service of Spain, became the first European to reach Latin America. Columbus sailed west from Spain in hope of finding a short sea route to eastern Asia. He landed on the island of San Salvador in the West Indies and believed that he had reached Asia.

After Columbus returned to Spain, news of his discovery created great excitement in Europe. To prevent disputes between Portugal and Spain over which country could claim the newly discovered lands, Pope Alexander VI drew the Line of Demarcation in 1493. This imaginary north-south line lay about 350 miles (563 kilometers) west of two island groups in the North Atlantic Ocean--the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands. All lands west of the line belonged to Spain, and all lands to the east belonged to Portugal. However, the Portuguese soon became dissatisfied because they thought the line gave Spain too much territory. In 1494, Portugal and Spain signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, which moved the line about 1,295 miles (2,084 kilometers) west. As a result, Portugal gained the right to settle the eastern section of what is now Brazil. Portugal took possession of this area in 1500, when a Portuguese navigator named Pedro alvares Cabral landed on the east coast of Brazil.

Columbus made four voyages to Latin America between 1492 and 1502. During these voyages, he explored many islands in the West Indies and the coasts of what are now Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, and Venezuela. Other explorers soon followed Columbus to Latin America. The Europeans quickly realized that the region was not Asia but a new land. Mapmakers named the land America in honor of the Italian-born explorer Amerigo Vespucci. Vespucci made several voyages to Latin America in the late 1490's and early 1500's for Spain and Portugal. Vespucci was one of the first explorers to state that the region was a "New World."

In 1513, the Spanish adventurer Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed Panama and became the first European to see the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean. His discovery provided additional proof that America was a separate continent between Europe and Asia. In 1520, the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to discover the waterway that connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean at the southern tip of South America. Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America and through the strait that now bears his name.

The conquest of the Indians began soon after the Europeans arrived in Latin America. By the mid-1500's, a small group of Spanish adventurers known as conquistadors (conquerors) had defeated the great Indian civilizations and given Spain a secure hold on most of Latin America. The conquistadors led relatively small but well-equipped forces. They easily defeated large armies of Indians, who had never seen guns or horses.

The first major conquests of the Indians occurred in Mexico and Central America. The conquistador Hernando Cortes landed in Mexico in 1519. By 1521, he had conquered the great Aztec empire. The following year, another conquistador, known as Pedrarias, conquered the Indians of what are now Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In 1523, Pedro de Alvarado, one of Cortes's officers, conquered what are now El Salvador and Guatemala. These conquistadors, together with Balboa in Panama, secured Central America for Spain.

In 1531, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro sailed south from Panama to what is now Peru. During the next two years, his army marched about 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) through the Andes Mountains and conquered the huge Inca empire. Pizarro founded Lima in 1535. The city became Peru's capital and the center of Spanish government in South America. One of the few areas the Spanish failed to conquer was southern Chile, where the Araucanian Indians resisted for more than 300 years.

Colonial rule. Even before the military conquest of Latin America was complete, Spanish and Portuguese settlers began pouring into the region. Many of them came in search of adventure and mineral wealth. Others established plantations to grow sugar cane, tobacco, and other crops to export to Europe. Much of Latin America was colonized by the time the first European settlers arrived on the Atlantic coast of North America in the mid-1500's. During the 1600's, the Dutch, English, and French established small colonies in Latin America, chiefly in the West Indies.

Large numbers of Latin American Indians died of diseases brought by Europeans or were killed in warfare. During the early 1500's, Spain established the encomienda system in Latin America. Under this system, the Spanish king granted colonists the right to collect tribute from Indians living on certain large tracts of land. The colonists forced the Indians to farm the land or work in mines. In return, the colonists were supposed to protect the Indians and convert them to Christianity. However, many colonists treated the Indians cruelly. Several Roman Catholic missionaries, especially Bartolome de Las Casas, pleaded for more humane treatment of the Indians. But millions of Indians died from overwork and harsh treatment. As the Indian population of Latin America declined, Europeans began to import black Africans as slaves (see SLAVERY).

Power in colonial Latin America rested with three groups. One group consisted of government officials appointed by European rulers. In each colony, these officials controlled a highly centralized government. This type of administration, in which a few individuals held power, enabled the Europeans to govern the colonies for one main purpose--to exploit their natural resources to the fullest.

The Roman Catholic clergy was another power group. The clergy controlled education in the colonies and was charged with converting the Indians and blacks to Christianity.

The third power group in colonial Latin America consisted of landowners and mine operators. Many settlements in Latin America sprang up near choice farmland or important mineral resources. As a result, numerous communities lay far from the centers of colonial government. In many such cases, the local landowners or mine operators held economic and political control. Some owners and operators used their power justly, but others were ruthless dictators.

Europe profited tremendously from Latin America's mineral wealth and agricultural products. Ships filled with silver and gold regularly departed from Latin American ports for Europe. Agricultural exports included coffee, cotton, sugar cane, and tobacco. Over the years, Spain's economy became increasingly dependent on Latin America. The country suffered hardship if vessels from the colonies carrying valuable cargo were sunk in Atlantic storms or raided by pirates.

The beginnings of colonial unrest. Colonial rule of Latin America lasted about 300 years. During that time, discontent among the colonists gradually grew. Many Latin Americans wanted greater control over their economic and political affairs. But the European powers ignored the demands for more self-government until the movement for independence was unstoppable.

The desire for independence among Latin Americans arose for several reasons. The criollos (people of Spanish ancestry born in Latin America) resented the fact that officials from Spain held all the top posts in colonial government. These officials looked down on the criollos because they had not been born in Europe.

Dissatisfaction was even greater among Latin Americans of mixed European and Indian ancestry. Many of these mestizos had gained wealth and property and wanted to take an active role in colonial government. However, mestizos had little social or political standing among the Europeans who controlled Latin America.

The continual flow of the region's resources to Europe also angered many Latin Americans. Spain and Portugal permitted the colonies to trade only with their mother countries. The colonies could not even trade among themselves. In addition, Spain and Portugal hampered Latin America's economic growth by discouraging the development of manufacturing. The colonial rulers wanted Latin Americans to buy European-made products rather than manufacture products for themselves.

The political and economic injustices suffered by the colonists led to a growing desire for independence in Latin America. Although Spain and Portugal introduced a number of reforms in the colonies before 1800, many Latin Americans still wanted freedom.

The wars of independence in Latin America were finally triggered by events in North America and Europe. The success of the Revolutionary War in America (1775-1783) and the ideals of freedom and equality promised by the French Revolution (1789-1799) inspired the unhappy colonists. At the same time, Spain and Portugal were losing their importance as world powers. In 1807, the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte of France invaded and conquered Portugal. The next year, Napoleon drove Ferdinand VII from the Spanish throne and replaced him with his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Spain's control over its colonies was thereby weakened, and many Latin Americans took the opportunity to fight for independence.

Mexico began its revolt against Spain in 1810. The struggle was first led by two Roman Catholic priests, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon. The initial revolt failed, however, and Spanish troops executed both Hidalgo and Morelos. Mexico did not win its independence until 1821.

Central America also gained its freedom from Spain in 1821. Central America had little economic importance, and so Spain largely ignored the area. As a result, Central Americans won their independence without bloodshed. In 1822, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,Honduras, and Nicaragua became part of Mexico. In 1823, however, they broke away from Mexico and formed a political union called the United Provinces of Central America. Bitter regional rivalries caused this union to begin to collapse in 1838, and each of the states had become an independent republic by 1841. The territory of Panama was a Colombian province from 1821 until 1903, when it rebelled against Colombia with help from the United States and became an independent country. Belize was a British colony from 1862 to 1981, when it gained independence.

Spanish South America. The two greatest heroes in the fight for independence in Spanish South America were the Venezuelan general Simon Bolivar and the Argentine general Jose de San Martin. Bolivar helped win freedom for Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. San Martin fought for the independence of Argentina, Chile, and Peru.

The Venezuelan revolutionist Francisco de Miranda led an unsuccessful revolt against the Spanish in 1806. Bolivar, who had been a follower of Miranda's, launched a new campaign in 1813. His armies fought against the Spanish forces for about 10 years before winning a final, great victory at Ayacucho, Peru, in 1824. The victory assured independence for the Spanish colonies in northern South America.

In the south, landowners in Chile declared their country's freedom in 1810. However, Spanish forces overcame them. Lasting independence was won for Chile in 1818 by armies led by San Martin and the Chilean hero Bernardo O'Higgins. Earlier, in 1816, San Martin had freed Argentina from Spanish rule. His armies later fought for Peru's independence.

Brazil won its freedom from Portugal without firing a shot. When Napoleon invaded Portugal in 1807, the Portuguese ruler, Prince John, fled to Brazil. John returned to Portugal 14 years later, after Napoleon's defeat. He left his son Pedro to govern Brazil. But the Brazilians no longer wanted to be ruled by Europeans. They demanded freedom from Portugal. In 1822, Pedro declared Brazil an independent empire and took the throne as Emperor Pedro I.

The West Indies. In 1791, Toussaint L'Ouverture and others led black African slaves in Haiti in a revolt against their French rulers. Haiti won its freedom in 1804 and became the first independent nation in Latin America. The Dominican Republic declared its independence in 1844. A revolt broke out against Spanish rule in Cuba in 1895. The United States sided with the Cuban rebels, which led to the Spanish-American War (1898) between Spain and the United States. The United States won the war, and Cuba became a republic in 1902. Under the terms of the peace treaty, Spain also gave up its colony of Puerto Rico to the United States. Most small West Indian islands remained under British, Dutch, or French control until the mid-1900's. Since then, most of these islands have become independent. Many of the others have gained more control over their affairs.

The problems of independence. During colonial times, Latin Americans were governed by the laws of distant monarchs and had almost no voice in their own affairs. When they rebelled and established their own countries, they thus had little experience in government. For that reason, some leaders thought it unwise to establish republics in Latin America. But eager patriots, inspired by the French Revolution and the Revolutionary War in America, demanded republican government.

After achieving independence, Latin Americans soon found that it was easier to set up a republican government than to make it work. The inexperience of the new leaders led to violent struggles throughout Latin America. Ambitious dictators seized power in a number of countries. Armies that had fought for independence often helped keep dictators in power. In other countries, wealthy landowners controlled the government.

Immediately upon gaining independence, many Latin American republics abolished slavery. By the late 1800's, all the slaves in the region had been freed. However, independence brought little improvement in the lives of most Latin Americans. Wealthy criollos and mestizos took over the established economic, political, and social institutions. Poor mestizos, Indians, and blacks had little, if any, power. For many of these people, life became even harder than it had been under colonial rule.

Border disputes. Since independence, relations between a number of Latin American countries have been severely damaged by disagreements over national boundaries. War broke out in 1825 between Argentina and Brazil over disputed territory bordering both countries. A treaty signed three years later established the area as the independent nation of Uruguay. In the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-1870), Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay defeated Paraguay. The war firmly established the common borders of those countries. About half of Paraguay's population was killed in the conflict. In the War of the Pacific (1879-1883), Chile fought Bolivia and Peru over a nitrate-rich area along the Pacific Ocean. Chile won the war and took possession of the territory, leaving Bolivia without a seacoast. Bolivia has remained landlocked ever since.

From 1932 to 1935, Bolivia and Paraguay fought for control of the Gran Chaco, a lowland region bordering both countries. Most of the area was eventually awarded to Paraguay. Fighting broke out several times during the early 1900's between Peru and Ecuador over a wild, uncharted area of the Amazon River Basin between Ecuador and Brazil. Peru annexed the area in the 1940's. However, Ecuador still claims the area, and fighting between Ecuador and Peru has broken out there from time to time. Among other continuing disputes, Guatemala claims land controlled by Belize, and Venezuela declares ownership of about two-thirds of Guyana.

Trade relations and economic developments. Since colonial times, the economies of many Latin American countries have depended heavily on the export of a few agricultural and mineral products. The exports of some nations consist chiefly of one product--for example, bananas in Honduras; coffee in Colombia; copper in Chile; petroleum in Ecuador, Mexico, and Venezuela; sugar in Cuba and the Dominican Republic; and tin in Bolivia. A drop in the market price for these exports causes severe economic hardships. Since the mid-1900's, many countries have spent large sums of money to develop other industries and so lessen their dependence on agricultural and mineral exports. Many of these countries have received loans from regional and international economic organizations for this purpose. They have also been given economic aid from other nations.

In the past, most Latin American nations imported many manufactured goods from Europe and the United States. Latin American countries traded relatively little with one another because they produced similar products. With the growth of manufacturing, however, several economic unions were formed to encourage regional trade. They included the Latin American Integration Association, the Central American Common Market, the Caribbean Community and Common Market, and the Andean Pact. These organizations worked to lower trade barriers among the member countries and to promote economic growth in the region.

Before the 1960's, most major industries in Latin America were owned by United States and European companies. Many Latin Americans believed that these foreign businesses were only interested in making huge profits and cared little for the welfare of the region's people. In the late 1960's, some countries passed laws prohibiting foreign ownership of certain key industries. The governments of such nations as Bolivia, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela took control of industries previously owned by U.S. and European companies. However, most countries also encouraged foreign investment in industries that require modernization.

Since the 1980's, many important changes have taken place in the economies of Latin American countries and in Latin American patterns of trade. Although some countries still export only a few agricultural and mineral products, Brazil and certain other countries in the region have become important exporters of manufactured goods. Latin American countries have added new agricultural products, such as cut flowers, to the ranks of their exports, and they have tapped new overseas markets.

The movement to establish unity among the nations of North and South America, called Pan-Americanism, dates from the early 1800's. In 1826, the great Venezuelan general Simon Bolivar called the first in a series of conferences of the newly independent Latin American countries. He believed the republics needed to work together to solve common problems. But for over 60 years, national jealousies kept the republics from achieving regional cooperation.

In 1890, the United States and 18 Latin American nations formed the International Union of American Republics. The central office of this organization, called the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics, was renamed the Pan American Union in 1910. The purpose of the Pan American Union was to establish closer economic, cultural, and political cooperation among member nations. The Organization of American States (OAS) was established in 1948, and the Pan American Union became its permanent governing body. The membership of the OAS consists of the United States and all the independent countries of Latin America. The OAS seeks to provide for collective self-defense, regional cooperation, and the peaceful settlement of disputes.

In 1947, the United States and nearly all the Latin American republics signed the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance. The treaty was drawn up near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and is commonly called the Rio Treaty. It states that an armed attack against any country that signed the treaty would be considered an attack against all the other countries.

Latin America and the United States have often had a difficult relationship. The United States supported the Latin American colonies in their wars of independence. In 1823, U.S. President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European powers not to meddle in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. But the doctrine caused much resentment among Latin Americans. Many of them felt that the United States was assuming its superiority over Latin America by making itself the region's protector.

Numerous Latin Americans distrust the United States because of its great wealth and power. At times, they have suspected it of trying to control the entire hemisphere. Such suspicions arose when the United States fought the Mexican War (1846-1848) after annexing Texas in 1845. Latin Americans were also concerned when the United States won control of Puerto Rico in 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War.

The presence of United States military forces in Latin America increased during the early 1900's. In 1903, U.S. troops helped Panama win its independence from Colombia. In return, Panama gave the United States permanent control of the zone where the Panama Canal was later built. Latin Americans were especially upset when the United States stationed marines in Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933, in Haiti from 1915 to 1934, and in the Dominican Republic from 1916 to 1924. The marines were sent to these countries to protect U.S. interests during times of political unrest. Several Latin American countries sided with the United States against Germany during World War I (1914-1918), but most remained neutral.

Latin American distrust of the United States decreased somewhat after a Pan-American conference in 1933.
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Roland Camilleri

Moderator

Sydney , Australia.